THE  TEACHING 

OP 

ORAL  ENGLISH 


"In  education  the  process  of  self -development  should  be 
encouraged  to  the  fullest  extent.  Children  should  be 
led  to  make  their  own  investigations,  and  to  draw  their 
own  inferences.  They  should  be  told  as  little  as  pos- 
sible, and  induced  to  discover  as  much  as  possible. 
Humanity  has  progressed  solely  by  self -instruction;  and 
that  to  achieve  the  best  results,  each  mind  must  progress 
somewhat  after  the  same  fashion,  is  continually  proved  by 
the  marked  success  of  self-made  men.  Those  who  have 
been  brought  up  under  the  ordinary  school  drill,  and  have 
carried  away  with  them  the  idea  that  education  is  prac- 
ticable only  in  that  style,  will  think  it  hopeless  to  make 
children  their  own  teachers."— HERBERT  SPENCER. 


THE  TEACHING 

OF 

ORAL  ENGLISH 


BY 
EMMA  M.  BOLENIUS,  A.M., 

FORMERLY     INSTRUCTOR     IN      ENGLISH,     CENTRAL    COMMERCIAL     AND 
MANUAL  TRAINING  HIGH  SCHOOL,   NEWARK,   N.  J. 


SECOND  EDITION 


PHILADELPHIA  AND  LONDON 
J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT,   1914,  BY  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COUP  ANT 
COPYRIGHT,    1916.   BY  J.   B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 


Electrotyped  and  Printed  by  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company 
The  Washington  Square  Press,  Philadelphia,  U.  S.  A. 


To 


THE  BOYS  AND  GIRLS  WHO  HAVE 
MADE    THESE     PAGES     POSSIBLE 


333822 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I 
" ONE-MINUTE  TALKS"  WITH  BEGINNERS..       1 

CHAPTER  II 

" ONE-MINUTE  TALKS"  WITH  OLDER  STU- 
DENTS       23 

CHAPTER  III 
WHAT  TO  AVOID  IN  ORAL  COMPOSITION  ...     43 

CHAPTER  IV 
THE  CHOICE  OF  A  SUBJECT 57 

CHAPTER  V 

THE  DEBATE  IN  ENGLISH  AND  HISTORY  ...     74 

CHAPTER  VI 

THE  USE  OF  THE  SYMPOSIUM  IN  ENGLISH 
CLASSES 102 

CHAPTER  VII 
A  MYTHOLOGICAL  SYMPOSIUM 113 

CHAPTER  VIII 

ORAL  COMPOSITION  IN  HISTORY 127 

CHAPTER  IX 
THE  HISTORY  CLUB 146 

CHAPTER  X 

ORGANIZING  A  GOVERNMENT  AS  A  CLASS  EX- 
ERCISE .  .177 


PREFACE 

IN  these  days  of  modern  efficiency, 
pedagogy  must  be  practical.  It  must 
yield  results.  Both  press  and  general 
public  have  arraigned  the  schools  of  the 
country  for  failure  to  produce  effective 
spoken  English.  Thoughtful  teachers 
acknowledge  that  pupils  leave  school  with 
slovenly  speech  largely  because  there  is 
no  regular  supervision  of  their  speech  and 
no  systematic  practice  in  oral  composi- 
tion. The  new  movement  in  teaching 
English,  therefore,  under  the  inspiring 
leadership  of  the  English  Journal  and  the 
National  Council  of  Teachers  of  English, 
is  a  strong  reaction  in  favor  of  oral  Eng- 
lish. Since  the  National  Council  of 
Teachers  of  English  has  recommended 
that  much  more  of  the  time  given  to  com- 
position should  be  devoted  to  oral  composi- 
tion, and  since  a  number  of  cities  now 
require  that  candidates  who  wish  to  teach 
English  must  show  a  knowledge  of  oral 
methods  and  an  ability  to  teach  oral  Eng- 
lish, it  is  necessary  to  devise  a  plan 

iz 


x  PREFACE 

whereby  oral  composition  can  be  com- 
bined with  the  other  English  work. 

Common-sense  suggests  that  slight  im- 
provement can  be  made  in  a  pupil's  habits 
of  speech  if  he  is  given  oral  composition 
only  six  or  seven  times  a  term.  What  is 
needed  is  eighty  talks  a  year  or  a  minimum 
of  at  least  one  a  week.  Furthermore,  in 
a  democratic  school  system  like  ours  a 
method  must  be  applied  to  each  pupil  in 
a  class,  not  to  a  favored  few.  Teachers, 
therefore,  are  groping  for  a  way  to  sys- 
tematize oral  composition  and  correlate  it 
with  the  other  English  work  in  the  limited 
time  allowed  the  whole  subject. 

Five  years  ago  the  writer  began  to 
experiment  in  teaching  oral  composition 
in  a  private  school 1  of  about  five  hundred 
students,  in  classes  of  from  twenty  to 
thirty  pupils  each.  Later  the  same 
methods  were  used  in  the  Central  High 
School  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  a  school  of  more 
than  twelve  hundred  pupils,  with  the 
larger  classes  usually  found  in  big  city 
high  schools.  In  both  schools  the  good 
results  were  gratifying. 

1See  Education,  March,   1911,   and  Popular  Educator. 
Sept.-Dec.f  1911. 


PREFACE  xi 

The  methods  advocated  in  these  pages 
are  based  up^n  the  following  convictions: 

1.  Oral  composition  must  be  assigned 
often  enough  to  make  an  impression  upon 
the  speech  of  a  pupil. 

2.  Each  pupil  must  be  given  the  train- 
ing in  speaking. 

3.  A  pupil's  speech  must  be  caught  in 
the  making,  for  a  memorized  speech  is 
not  oral  composing. 

4.  Personal     poise,     management     of 
voice,  phraseology,  and  power  of  think- 
ing must  all  be  trained. 

5.  Oral  composition  should  be  used  in 
connection  with  other  studies  that  permit 
of  topical  discussion. 

6.  Self-government  by  the  class,  organ- 
ized as  a  club  using  parliamentary  pro- 
cedure,  gives   the   pupil   invaluable   dis- 
cipline of  mind  and  character. 

7.  Self-teaching    is    the    best    sort    of 
teaching,    for   it   brings   the   most   per- 
manent results. 

8.  Progress  in  oral  English  is  secured 
by  regular  practice  and  deliberate  effort, 
on  the  part  of  the  pupil,  to  eliminate  faults 
and  to  increase  powers  of  expression. 

9.  The     laboratory     method — experi* 


xii  PREFACE 

mentation  and  criticism  of  results — is  as 
applicable  to  English  as  to  science. 

This  book  is  a  description  of  laboratory 
methods  applied  to  oral  composition. 
Copious  notes  of  talks  and  various  other 
exercises,  recorded  by  the  writer  from  day 
to  day  as  the  classes  met,  furnish  the 
illustrative  material  in  these  chapters.  If 
some  of  the  ideas  seem  new,  we  contend 
that  they  are  grounded  in  the  psychology 
of  common-sense.  They  bring  results  and 
win  the  enthusiastic  support  of  students. 
In  the  Central  High  School  at  Newark 
pupils,  eager  for  effective  self-expression 
in  speech,  organized  a  Speak  Well  Club 
and  from  the  stage  of  the  large  auditorium 
gave  extra  talks  after  school. 

These  pages  do  not  aim  to  lay  down 
an  arbitrary  system,  but  to  be  suggestive 
to  teachers.  It  is  hoped  that  the  book 
will  prove  stimulating  to  young  teachers 
just  out  of  college  or  normal  school,  to 
teachers  of  rural  schools,  and  to  all  others 
who  are  searching  for  ways  and  means 
of  fulfilling  the  requirement  that  the 
schools  teach  more  effective  speech. 

April,  1914 


THE  TEACHING  OF 
ORAL  ENGLISH 

CHAPTER  I 

"  ONE-MINUTE  TALKS  "  WITH 
BEGINNERS 

THIS  is  just  a  talk,  not  a  formal  ex- 
position of  methods.  There  are  tricks 
in  the  trade,  even  in  teaching,  a  knack 
in  presenting  the  subject  attractively,  and 
thus  getting  the  best  and  the  most  out  of 
the  pupil.  Some  methods  used  effectively 
in  oral  composition  we  hope  to  show  in 

the  following  pages. 

*+ ' 

THE    NEED    FOR  ORAL    COMPOSITION 

Stock-men  hobble  their  horses  to  cor- 
rect faults  ;of  gait.  This  turns  out  a 
beautiful  pacer  or  coach  horse  with  su- 
perb swing  of  limb,  very  different  from 
that  of  the  farm  horse  or  the  hack.  The 
restraint  of  the  hobble  has  made  the 
thoroughbred  gait. 

l 


TALKS  WITH.  BEGINNERS 

Many  of  our  boys  and  girls  of  the 
earlier  years,  first-year  students  in  high 
schools,  for  instance,  and  students  in 
country  schools,  have  grown  up  wild  in 
speech.  Their  talk  abounds  in  the  slang, 
grammatical  errors,  localisms,  and  mis- 
pronunciations which  make  slovenliness; 
as  well  as  in  the  mistakes  made  by 
foreigners  in  acquiring  a  new  language. 
The  boy  in  his  conversation  is  a  hobble- 
de-hoy. 

Therefore,  we  say  "hobble  the  boy!" 
Do  it  consciously,  yet  tactfully,  so  that 
there  will  not  be  a  sacrifice  of  creative 
power.  Let  him  run  short  lengths  in 
speech,  by  giving  him  oral  themes  of  f  rorr> 
fifty  to  two  hundred  words — "  one-minute 
talks  "  in  class. 

No  one  questions  the  importance  of 
correct,  clear,  effective  speech.  All 
schools  emphasize  written  composition; 
progressive  schools  are  beginning  to  place 
oral  composition  on  an  equal  footing,  giv- 
ing to  both  a  good  share  of  time,  for  in 
expression,  practice  directed  by  theory  is 
what  counts.  It  must  be  the  kind  of  ex- 
pression that  makes  an  impression. 


NEED  FOR  ORAL  COMPOSITION       3 

The  need  of  a  system  of  oral  com- 
position was  recognized  by  the  New  York 
State  Association  of  English  Teachers, 
meeting  at  Columbia  University,  when 
they  revised  the  college  entrance  require- 
ments as  follows : 


'(1)  Test    of    written    composition    by    a 
theme  based  on  personal  experience. 

(2)  Test  of  range  of  reading  and  literary 
appreciation   by  questions   based   on   general 
reading. 

(3)  Test  of  the  candidate's  power  of  oral 
expression  by  reading  aloud  and  by  conversing. 


It  is  also  significant  that  the  High 
School  Teachers'  Association  of  New 
York  City  in  revising  the  course  of  study 
for  secondary  schools  gave  more  promi- 
nence to  oral  composition  and  to  reading 
aloud. 

Education  should  prepare  boys  and 
girls  to  cope  successfully  with  life.  Is  it 
good  judgment  to  concentrate  on  a 
foreign  tongue  or  a  dead  language,  and 
yet  allow  the  boy  to  leave  school  at  gradua- 
tion with  a  slovenly  use  of  English,  his 


4  TALKS  WITH  BEGINNERS 

mother  tongue,  the  medium  he  will  use 
all  his  life  in  social  relations  and  in 
business? 

During  his  entire  life  the  boy  will  be 
talking — in  the  office,  on  the  street,  at 
home,  in  church  work,  in  social  life  at 
large.  First  impressions  are  made  and 
unmade  by  the  words  that  fall  from  the 
lips.  Many  an  applicant  has  lost  his 
chance  of  a  position  because  his  English 
was  not  good.  Many  a  professional  man 
has  wished  he  had  the  confidence  to  speak 
his^  professional  views  in  public ;  many  a 
club  woman  has  sat  silent  in  a  meeting 
because  she  was  not  as  clever  with  her 
\  tongue  as  with  her  brain. 

Do  you  remember  the  time  when,  as  a 
child,  you  permitted  an  injustice  to  be 
done  you  by  another,  because  you  were 
too  timid  to  speak  out?  Or  do  you  remem- 
ber an  occasion  when  you  really  knew  a 
question  but  lacked  the  words  and  confi- 
dence to  explain  it?  Ideas  seethed  within 
you,  but  were  you  too  diffident  to  voice 
them?  Perhaps  you  sat  in  a  meeting, 
struggling  with  yourself  to  speak,  but 
though  the  brain  was  ready  with  a  good 


INTRODUCTORY  TALK  TO  CLASS     5 

idea,  the  lips  hesitated.  Then,  too,  do 
you  remember  how  you  raked  your  brain 
for  ideas,  but  none  came?  Woeful  ad- 
mission, is  it  notl  Do  you  not  wish  that 
the  school  had  helped  you,  as  a  pupil,  to 
think  thoughts  worthwhile,  and  had 
forced  out  your  opinion? 

"  One-minute  talks  "  in  class  can  be  of 
incalculable  aid  in  curing  faults  and  in 
developing  thought.  The  object  of  this 
book  is  to  show  how  systematized  oral 
composition  brought  out  astonishingly 
good  results  in  a  large  mixed  school  of 
American  boys  and  girls,  many  eager 
Greeks  and  Russian  Jews,  and  a  Chinese 
boy. 

AN  INTRODUCTORY  TALK  TO  THE  CLASS 

Here  is  an  assorted  class  with  all  kinds 
of  home  training,  all  kinds  of  brains — both 
American-  and  foreign-made.  Our  busi- 
ness is  to  teach  these  students  to  speak 
and  to  write  well.  At  first  glance,  their 
chief  faults  seem  to  be  timidity,  paucity 
of  ideas,  small  vocabulary,  and  incorrect 
expressions.  If  we  have  an  intimate  talk 
as  to  why  we  wish  them  to  learn  to  speak 


6  TALKS  WITH  BEGINNERS 

clearly,  correctly,  and  effectively,  they 
will  enter  heartily  into  the  spirit  of  the 
crusade  against  poor  English.  Two  pull- 
ing together  get  better  results  than  two 
pulling  opposite  ways  or  one  alone 
pushing. 

Therefore,  we  explain: 

"  The  class  will  be  a  little  club  to  help 
you  to  become  good  talkers,  good  writers, 
good  thinkers,  good  *  appreciators/  It 
is  to  be  a  Mutual  Benefit  Society,  .in  which 
each  helps  the  other  to  overcome  his  faults 
and  to  develop  his  strong  points.  It  was 
Boileau,  the  French  critic,  who  said,  '  The 
style's  the  man/  Therefore,  we  will  help 
each  one  of  you  to  bring  out  your  personal 
style,  your  individuality.  To  do  this, 
each  one  here  must  pull  with  us  and  do 
his  best  to  develop  himself.  You  will 
learn  to  think  on  your  feet,  to  speak 
entertainingly,  to  hold  an  audience — if 
you  do  your  part." 

Next  on  the  program  is  to  hold  up  an 
ideal,  a  standard.  It  is  a  good  plan  to 
write  it  on  the  blackboard,  as  it  is  drawn 
from  the  class  by  questions. 

"  Why  do  you  like  your  minister?  " 


INTRODUCTORY  TALK  TO  CLASS     7 

"  His  voice  rolls  out  so  loud  and  nicely," 
volunteers  John. 

"  Ours  has  a  squeaky  voice  but  he  tells 
good  stories,"  adds  an  older  boy. 

"  Ours  puts  his  words  together  well," 
says  another. 

'  You  ought  to  see  our  preacher," 
bursts  in  Tom.  "  He  stands  up  so  much 
bigger  than  he  is,  and  he's  alwus  lookin' 
right  at  you!" 

"  Just  so,"  we  offer.  "  Any  more 
reasons? " 

"  Ours  has  such  sensible  ideas,"  says 
Mary  Gray  timidly,  "  such  beautiful 
ideas  about  life.  And  he  uses  his  hands, 
too." 

"Would  it  not  be  fine,  boys,"  is  the 
comment,  as  we  write  "  ideas  and 
gestures  "  on  the  board,  "  to  have  a  minis- 
ter who  did  and  had  all  these  things!  " 

"Yes,  sir!"  ejaculates  Tom.  "But 
he'd  go  to  a  big  church  and  we  wouldn't 
get  him!" 

"  Exactly!  "  The  tone  means  volumes. 
"  He  would  get  a  great  salary,  a  broader 
field,  and  honor — simply  because  he  has 
all  these  things  combined,  which  your 


N 


8  TALKS  WITH  BEGINNERS 

ministers  have  separately.  Would  it  not 
be  fine  for  one  person  to  have  all  these 
things!" 

They  nod  approval. 

"  Then  let  us  work  for  them  all.  We 
shall  write  these  fine  things  on  the  board. 
You  may  take  them  down  in  the  back 
of  your  theme  boot  as  a  model." 

Then  the  outline  is  blocked  in: 

A   FINE  SPEAKEE 
Position 

1.  Body — Erect,  graceful. 

2.  Head— Up. 

3.  Eyes — Alert,     sparkling     with     interest, 

holding  the  whole  audience. 

4.  Hands — Loose,  used  to  emphasize  points 

naturally,  gestures. 
Voice  • 

1.  Loud — What  is  the  use  of  saying  any- 

thing, if  it  can  not  be  heard ! 

2.  Well-modulated — Speaking  in  one  tone  is 

disagreeable — so  is  the  sing-song 
speaker.  Let  the  voice  go  up  and 
down  pleasantly;  let  it  be  flexible. 

5.  Good    Quality — Not    nasal,    sharp,    or 

gruff,  but  musical. 


A  FINE  SPEAKER  0 

Style 

1.  Correct — Grammar,    pronunciation,    vo- 

cabulary. 

2.  Clear — Know  what  you  mean  yourself, 

then  tell  it  so  that  others  understand. 
S.  Concise — Use  few  words.    Do  not  ramble 
or  say  things  indirectly. 

4.  Coherent — Link   one   sentence  naturally 

to  the  one  before,  to  avoid  abruptness. 

5.  Convincing — Learn  to  use  all  the  devices 

that  improve  style.     A  rhetoric  text- 
book explains  these.     Use  them. 
Ideas 

1.  Fullness — Get   ideas   from  reading,   ob- 

servation, conversation,  imagination,  etc. 

2.  Correctness — Be    accurate    in    your    in- 

formation; avoid  the  slip-shod  process 
of  thinking.  A  country  boy's  accurate 
information  about  a  squirrel  or  a 
ground-hog  is  worth  more  than  a  city 
boy's  jumbled  description  of  the  same, 
culled  from  an  encyclopedia  and 
chance  observation. 

3.  Interest — Widen  your  interests.   Broaden 

your  outlook.  Choose  interesting  sub- 
jects, of  which  you  know  something, 
subjects  in  which  the  class  is  interested. 


10 


TALKS  WITH  BEGINNERS 


With  some  striking  statement  that  sets 
the  class  working  along  very  definite  lines, 
this  introductory  talk  is  concluded.  In 
one  class  it  was: 

"So  you  see,  our  system  is  the  Big 
Four."  To  illustrate,  we  draw  four  sets 


of  rails  in  perspective.  At  the  joining 
point  we  write  "  fine  speaker "  and  on 
the  separate  lines  "  position,"  "  voice," 
"  style,"  and  "  ideas." 

"  We  will  watch  our  positions,  voices, 


HOW  TALKS  ARE  GIVEN  11 

styles,  and  ideas  to  keep  them  evenly  ad- 
vancing. For  to-morrow  please  take 
account  of  yourselves,  as  if  you  were 
merchants  taking  account  of  stock. 
Notice  how  you  stand,  how  your  voice  is, 
how  you  speak,  and  how  your  ideas  come. 
If  possible,  talk  with  some  one  at  home 
about  your  manner  in  conversation.  In 
class  we  shall  discuss  the  thing  you 
are  most  interested  in." 

"  Gee!  "  blurts  out  Tom,  "  that's  mak- 
ing kites  for  me!" 

;<  Tell  us  how  it  is  done,"  is  the  reply,  as 
a  much-awakened  class  passes  from  the 
room. 

HOW  TALKS  ABE  GIVEN 

Before  the  first  performance  of  that 
class  is  described,  let  us  mention  various 
devices  to  get  timid  students  on  the  floor. 
The  "  one-minute  talks  "  are  given  from 
the  front  of  the  room,  facing  the  class,  as 
the  pulpit  is  in  front  of  the  congregation. 
That,  in  itself,  is  a  trial  for  the  backward. 
We  explain  that  it  is  really  only  a  recita- 
tion, given  from  the  front  of  the  room 


IS  TALKS  WITH  BEGINNERS 

instead  of  from  the  seat,  and  that  talks 
deal  with  some  one  subject  in  a  topical 
way,  instead  of  answering  one  of  several 
questions  needed  to  describe  that  one  sub- 
ject. There  are  always  some  students  in 
the  class  that  must  be  taught  to  conquer 
self -consciousness. 

But  what  a  valuable  conquest  it  is!  We 
worked  with  one  girl  nearly  a  month  be- 
fore we  could  induce  her  to  come  to  the 
front  of  the  room.  That  was  done  finally 
in  this  way:  She  was  asked  to  come  to  the 
teacher's  desk  and  talk  to  her;  while  she 
talked,  the  teacher  stood  up,  and  then  pre- 
tended to  do  something  in  the  back  of  the 
room. 

"  Just  go  on,"  was  said  off-hand,  as  the 
girl  hesitated. 

She  continued.  When  she  finished,  she 
was  greatly  complimented: 

"  Now  see  how  easy  it  is!  You  have 
been  talking  to  the  class,  too." 

It  requires  tact  to  help  the  backward, 
for  they  have  a  handicap  to  overcome  be- 
fore they  can  settle  down  to  the  four- 
track  race  above  described. 


THE  FIRST  LESSON  13 

THE  FIRST  LESSON 

The  class  has  assembled  on  the  next 
day.  Faces  are  eager.  Several  pupils 
have  brought  with  them  the  things  they 
mean  to  talk  about.  We  begin  by  calling 
piecemeal  from  the  class  the  ideal  of  a 
fine  speaker.  After  that,  comes  the 
plunge : 

"Now,  ready!  .  .  .  Come  to  the  front 
of  the  room,  stand  straight,  speak  loud, 
tell  in  a  few  words  about  the  thing  you 
are  interested  in.  Keep  an  eye  on  your 
listeners  to  see  if  they  follow  you.  When 
you  have  made  your  point,  stop.  Let  us 
make  it  voluntary.  Who  will  come  first?  " 

Tom  and  two  others  are  on  their  feet, 
one  a  boy  so  backward  and  undeveloped 
that  we  think  of  him  as  "  the  Angleworm." 
Tom  is  designated.  He  holds  a  small  kite 
awkwardly  in  his  hand. 

"  Fine! "  comes  the  word  of  praise. 
"  Show  the  class,  as  you  explain." 

So  the  boy,  awkwardly,  it  is  true,  points 
out  the  various  parts.  There  is  the  be- 
ginning of  gesture  for  him,  a  phase  of 
speaking  hard  for  young  people  to 
manage. 


14          TALKS  WITH  BEGINNERS 

"  Last  summer  I  made  a  lot  o*  kites.  We 
was  campin'  up  the  Allegheny.  You  take  two 
sticks  and  cross  them  like  this,  one  larger 
than  the  other.  Then  paste  paper  over  it,  tie 
string  to  the  middle.  Yes,  an'  you  make  a  tail 
by  tying  paper  onto  a  string  and  fastening 
to  the  end  to  weigh  it  down.  Here's  a  kite ! " 

"  That  is  a  good  start,  Tom,"  com- 
mends the  teacher. 

For  several  weeks  we  work  for  spon- 
taneity. After  that,  we  begin  to  point 
out  mistakes.  Meanwhile,  from  the  very 
first  there  is  kept  in  a  record  book  a  list 
of  errors  made  by  students  individually. 
For  example — 

Tom  Black:  Sept  10th,  concord — omits 
final  g — omits  final  consonants — an' — practi- 
cal— kites — to  the  point — voice  good — ges- 
tures, though  awkward — eager;  Sept.  12th, 

This  grouping  of  criticisms  under  the 
student's  name  is  a  card  system  of  notes, 
that  soon  reveal  weaknesses. 

"  The  Angleworm "  comes  up  next. 
He  holds  in  his  hand  a  bunch  of  ribbons. 


THE  FIRST  LESSON  15 

On  his  face  is  clearly  written  a  struggle 
between  interest  in  his  subject  and  awk- 
ward backwardness.  We  call  him  "Angle- 
worm," because  he  seems  absolutely  with- 
out the  backbone  of  will.  His  speech 
needs  many  encouraging  prods  to  get  it 
out,  but  it  also  is  a  good  "  first  speech," 
because  that  boy  never  did  so  hard  a  thing. 
He  holds  up  the  ribbons  with  a  half- 
foolish  smile  on  his  face.  When  the  class 
begins  to  titter,  the  teacher  looks  at  them 
with  a  surprised  air,  then  speaks : 

"  Are  those  prizes?  That  is  fine!  We 
wish  to  know  just  what  they  are  and  how 
you  got  them." 

The  class  is  all  interest.  How  a  little 
word  can  turn  them! 

"  I  won  'em/'  he  begins  boldly.  "  Chickens ! 
We  had  poultry  shows  at ,  at ,  and  at 


In  mind  we  can  hear  yet  his  sing-song, 
jerky  voice  and  see  his  mechanical,  scared 
manner. 

4  Yes?"  comes  the  interruption. 
"  Name  some  of  the  kinds  of  chickens." 


16  TALKS  WITH  BEGINNERS 

Then  he  runs  off  into  an  enumeration 
that  makes  us  almost  dizzy: 

"  Plymouth  Rocks,  Rhode  Island'  Reds, 
Wyandottes — them's  the  white  ones — Buff 
Cochins,  Brown  Leghorns,  White  Leghorns, 
Buff  Rocks,  Minorcas " 

His  voice  trails  off  to  the  ceiling. 

"Good!"  he  is  encouraged.  "Next 
time  will  you  tell  us  how  to  make  entries 
for  a  show  and  what  the  various  colors 
mean? " 

'  Yas'm,"  he  says  and  walks  back  to 
his  seat. 

That  minute  a  vertebra  formed!  In 
six  months  he  had  three- fourths  of  a  spinal 
column.  He  looks  people  in  the  eyes 
now  and  is  acquiring  a  manly,  not-afraid 
air.  On  his  feet  he  even  remembers  not 
to  say  "  them's." 

So  we  go  the  rounds — ten  volunteer,  all 
sorts  of  subjects.  Ten  more  are  called 
out  and  do  their  poor  best.  Four  sit 
silent — the  failures.  They  simply  can't, 
they  say.  It  took  several  trials  to  bring 
them  out,  but  they  came  as  they  always 


HELPING  STUDENTS  TO  IMPROVE  17 

will,  if  normal,  and  properly  urged.  Even 
abnormal  pupils  can  be  brought  out;  one 
young  fellow  who  lisped  made  a  record 
for  himself. 

HOW  TO  HELP  STUDENTS  TO  IMPROVE 

This  is  using  laboratory  methods  in 
English.  The  first  duty  of  the  teacher 
is  to  discover  the  boy's  weak  spots,  then 
point  them  out  to  him,  show  him  how  to 
overcome  them,  and  give  him  practice. 
Make  it  a  rule  to  praise,  as  well  as  to 
censure. 

At  intervals  it  is  well  to  discuss,  in- 
formally, the  most  noticeable  errors  in  the 
class,  as  lack  of  concord,  double  negative, 
wrong  cases  after  prepositions,  etc.,  in 
grammar;  failure  to  pronounce  vowels 
properly,  cutting  off  initial  or  final  letters 
of  words,  inserting  extra  letters  or  sylla- 
bles, sounding  silent  letters,  etc.,  in  pro- 
nunciation; confusing  such  words  as 
auditor  and  spectator,  accept  and  except, 
proscribe  and  prescribe,  etc.,  in  diction. 

Reserve  one  corner  of  the  blackboard, 

where  students  can  record  mistakes  they 
2 

r 


18  TALKS  WITH  BEGINNERS 

hear  or  bits  of  slang  to  avoid.  At  the  end 
of  the  week  give  a  few  minutes  to  discus- 
sion of  them.  Here  is  a  sample,  taken  at 
random  from  the  board: 


YOU  MUTT  GIVE  IT  TO  HER  AN    I 

THEM  THERE  THINGS       AIN?T  IT  SO 

YOU  SEZZER  EACH  BOY  TOOK  THEIR  BOOKS 


The  quality  of  ideas  can  be  improved 
by  putting  up  thought-inspiring  mottoes, 
by  talks,  by  reading  outside  of  school,  as 
well  as  by  careful  interpretation  of  the 
classics.  The  first  quietly  attract  atten- 
tion and  exert  a  silent  influence. 

We  have  three  separate  vocabularies. 
Our  smallest  is  the  speaking  vocabulary,, 
often  colloquial  and  sometimes  restricted 
by  slang.  Next  comes  the  writing  vocabu- 
lary, made  up  of  all  words  we  use  in  our 
writing.  This  is  a  larger  number,  be- 
cause we  can  take  time  to  think  of  the 
words.  It  should  be  our  aim  to  make  the 
speaking  and  writing  vocabularies  the 
same.  Last  comes  the  reading  vocabu- 
lary, comprising  all  words  we  know.  Our 
desire  should  be  to  use  these  words  in 


HELPING  STUDENTS  TO  IMPROVE  19 

writing  and  speaking.  Beyond  this 
comparatively  small  number  of  words  in 
each  student's  reading  vocabulary  lie  the 
other  thousands  that  make  up  Webster's 
Unabridged  Dictionary.  This  unknown 
vocabulary  is  a  vast  field  for  the  student 
to  explore  in  his  hunt  for  the  right  word  to 
express  his  idea.  Every  student  should 
own  a  small  dictionary  and  use  it  con- 
stantly. The  greatest  menace  of  slang- 
is  that  it  restricts  the  size  of  vocabulary  by 
keeping  out  of  use  standard  words. 

Beginners  ought  to  weed  out  grammati- 
cal mistakes,  unpleasant  mannerisms  in 
address,  and  mispronunciations;  they 
ought  to  acquire  a  larger  vocabulary  and 
a  wider  range  of  subjects;  they  ought  also 
to  apply  such  fundamental  laws  of  good 
writing,  as  unity,  emphasis,  clearness, 
brevity,  and  coherence.  Digressions,  am- 
biguity, wordiness,  and  incoherence  mark 
the  amateur ;  the  opposite  qualities  should 
be  rigidly  developed  in  the  beginner.  U,se 
of  outlines  will  cure  at  least  three  of  the 
above  faults,  because  the  outline  can  be 
tested  and  if  found  wrong  or  insufficient 
can  be  corrected.  Do  not  allow  students 


20  TALKS  WITH  BEGINNERS 

to  write  up  talks  from  outlines,  unless  de- 
sired for  a  special  purpose,  because  the 
actual  talk  then  becomes  an  exercise  in 
memory,  rather  than  in  original,  extem- 
poraneous phrasing. 

There  is  a  wealth  of  subjects  to  start 
with :  personal  experiences ;  processes ;  de- 
scriptions of  people,  of  articles ;  anecdotes ; 
reports  of  reading  or  of  lessons  studied. 
History  affords  abundant  chance  to  work 
in  these  talks.  Translations,  explana- 
tions, summaries,  discussions,  reasons, — 
all  these  are  exercises  in  "  Oral  Compo- 
sition." 

Speed  the  day  when  it  is  recognized  as 
fundamental  in  all  studies,  and  each 
teacher  makes  it  a  business  to  demand 
careful,  effective  expression  in  our 
mother-tongue. 

SUMMARY 

Digest  of  Methods. — Chapter  I  empha- 
sizes the  value  of  practical,  systematic 
training  in  oral  composition  and  the  need 
of  a  definite  ideal;  in  a  sample  lesson  it 
gives  a  concrete  illustration  of  the  gather- 


SUMMARY  21 

ing  together  of  such  material.  Such 
sample  lessons  are  of  great  help  to  the 
beginner  because  they  represent  actual 
teaching.  The  chapter  shows  how  to  keep 
an  individual  card  record  of  criticisms,  how 
to  use  other  features  with  English  work, 
and  how  to  arouse  and  preserve  a  vital 
interest  in  improving  daily  speech.  This 
last  is  done,  first,  by  furnishing  a  definite 
purpose  for  student  effort,  which  in  itself 
is  the  first  factor  in  successful  application ; 
next,  by  presenting  a  definite  problem  to 
be  tackled, — the  students'  own  faulty 
speech;  last,  by  pointing  out  a  definite 
remedy.  In  other  words,  the  teacher  helps 
the  students  to  diagnose  their  own  cases 
and  apply  the  cures.  Furthermore,  the 
chapter  urges  the  discussion  of  school 
matters  in  the  home,  and  by  giving  pupils 
a  chance  to  master  a  hard  situation  by 
act  of  will,  furnishes  them  with  the  key  to 
success  in  life. 

The  chapter  holds  that  it  is  better  at 
times  to  ignore  faults  and  control  the 
classroom  environment  so  that  it  induces 
responsiveness.  It  begins  work  from  the 
viewpoint  of  the  pupils'  interest,  and  by 


22  TALKS  WITH  BEGINNERS 

holding  out  something  worthwhile  as  the 
end  of  effort,  and  an  agreeable  under- 
standable road  of  effort,  minimizes  the 
friction  of  classroom  work,  thereby 
achieving  harmony,  the  frame  of  mind 
most  kind  to  accomplishment.  It  insists 
that  beginners  should  be  taught  to  express 
themselves  clearly  and  briefly;  that  timid- 
ity and  awkwardness,  as  well  as  ignorance, 
should  be  overcome  in  the  classroom.  By 
definite  suggestions  it  popularizes  dic- 
tionary work.  Great  waste  of  effort  is 
sometimes  found  in  the  schools  by  study 
about  English  instead  of  study  of  Eng- 
lish. Chapter  I  tries  to  eliminate  this  by 
insisting  that  subject-matter  should  be  a 
means,  not  an  end,  of  training.  It  shows 
the  teacher  how  to  draw  material  from  the 
class  instead  of  telling  it  himself,  and  how 
to  drive  ideas  home  by  chart  and  diagrams. 
In  a  word,  it  appeals  to  the  teacher  to 
convert  the  English  classroom  into  a 
laboratory  for  daily  experimentation  in 
speech,  and  in  such  speech  as  a  conscious 
exercise  in  oral  composition. 


CHAPTER  II 

"  ONE-MINUTE  TALKS  "  WITH  OLDER 
STUDENTS 

THE  ideal  of  the  good  speaker  has  been 
emphasized  constantly  through  the  stu- 
dent's first-year  work,  with  the  result  that 
there  is  discernible  an  improvement  in 

sitjon,  voice,  style,  and  ideas.  We  have 
nowcome  to  the  second^year  work,  or  oral 
composition  with  older  students. 

A    PLEA    FOR    HARMONIOUS    DEVELOPMENT 

"  Do  you  remember,''  the  teacher  asks 
by  way  of  reminder,  "  the  Big-Four 
Track,  that  leads  to  the  Fine  Speaker?  " 
In  a  moment  it  is  drawn  again  on  the 
blackboard.  '  These  must  all  be  de- 
veloped. Suppose  on  a  platform  before 
a  great  audience  a  man  is  speaking.  He 
has  graceful  gestures  and  magnetic  eyes 
— in  a  word,  the  born  orator's  manner; 
but  his  voice  is  so  weak  or  his  articulation 
so  poor  that  you  can  not  hear  or  under- 

23 


24  TALKS  WITH  OLDER  STUDENTS 

stand  what  he  is  saying.  How  disgusted 
you  are! 

"  Suppose  his  speech  can  be  understood, 
but  is  full  of  grammatical  blunders  that 
any  thirteen-year-old  boy  would  have  the 
sense  to  avoid.  What  then?  You  are 
disappointed,  but  may  listen  with  a  lofty 
air  (your  grammar  being  so  much  bet- 
ter!), because  his  ideas  are  worth  hearing." 

The  class  is  eagerly  following. 

"  Suppose,  again,  the  speaker  has  a  fine 
presence  and  a  golden  tongue  of  elo- 
quence, coming  from  a  natural  facility  in 
putting  words  together.  You  listen  to 
the  first  sentence  with  pleasure,  settling 
back  in  your  chair.  Biut  in  a  minute  you 
move  restlessly,  then  turn  to  your  neigh- 
bor with  a  *  Did  you  hear  that! '  in  your 
eye.  The  speech  is  worthless  and  ex- 
asperating, because  the  ideas  are  trite, 
hackneyed,  or  untrue. 

"  He  is  followed  by  another."  the 
teacher  continues — after  explaining  some 
"  exploded  theories,"  which  the  bright 
minds  in  the  class  wish  discussed — "  who 
slouches  on  the  platform  and  breaks  a 
half  dozen  grammatical  commandments, 


HARMONIOUS  DEVELOPMENT       25 

yet  you  listen.  He  has  ideas  worthwhile 
and  can  produce  them,  even  in  a  poor 
way." 

"  The  thoughts  come  first,  don't  they?  " 
breaks  in  an  interested  voice. 

'  Yes,  but  suppose "  begins  another 

student. 

A  broad  smile  runs  over  the  class  at  the 
unconscious  use  of  the  phraseology. 

"I'll  suppose  a  little  further,  since  this 
is  making  it  clear  to  you.  There  is  in  the 
audience  a  man  who  is  an  authority  on 
the  subject,  handled  so  crudely  by  the 
former  speaker — a  university  man  at  the 
head  of  his  profession.  But  he  refuses  to 
come  forward.  He  can  not  face  an  audi- 
ence and  marshal  his  thoughts  at  the  same 
time.  It  is  mortifying.  He  can  marshal 
them  superbly  in  the  quiet  of  his  study, 
where  he  puts  his  ideas  in  book  form,  but 
as  a  public  speaker  he  is  an  utter  failure. 
Another  man  is  invited  to  the  platform. 
He  happens  to  be  a  lawyer,  who  profes- 
sionally needs  a  pleasing  address,  fine 
voice,  good  flow  of  words,  and  strong 
ideas;  his  lively,  intelligent  speech,  there- 
fore, brings  a  round  of  applause." 


26     TALKS  WITH  OLDER  STUDENTS 

There  is  a  shine  of  pride  in  the  eyes  of 
the  boys  who  are  planning  to  be  lawyers, 
so  the  teacher  winds  up  with,  "  Every 
man  and  every  woman  ought  to  be  able 
to  speak,  as  the  lawyer  spoke !  " 

If  ideas  are  of  primary  importance,  we 
ought  to  help  our  boys  and  girls  to  form 
opinions  and  to  force  out  thought;  we 
ought  to  give  them  profitable  training 
in  developing  a  good  style;  we  ought  to 
strengthen  voices  until  they  can  be  heard, 
and  insist  on  the  best  position.  Schools 
fail  in  the  discharge  of  their  full  duty  if 
they  ignore  these. 

SELF-CRITICISM 

As  soon  as  the  boy  is  at  home  in  front  of 
the  class,  the  time  has  come  for  him  to 
concentrate  not  only  on  what  he  is  saying 
but  on  how  he  is  saying  it.  This  is  to  be 
done  eventually  by  himself,  while  speak- 
ing. It  stands  to  reason  that  older  stu- 
dents can  do  it  better  than  younger  ones. 
Certain  glaring  faults  must  be  corrected 
as  soon  as  said  or  done;  as,  lack  of  con- 
cord, common  mispronunciations,  weak 


SELF-CRITICISM  27 

voice,  and  bad  position.  Often  a  gesture 
is  enough  to  point  out  the  mistake.  If  the 
error  has  not  been  explained,  take  time  in 
class  to  explain  it. 

The  correction  of  mistakes  must  be 
gradual.  To  correct  every  error  would 
soon  have  the  boy  confused  by  the  multi- 
tude of  mistakes  he  is  directed  to  over- 
come. And  how  he  would  hate  English! 
The  attitude  of  like  or  dislike  makes  a 
great  difference  in  a  boy's  work. 

Such  a  method  of  wholesale  criticism 
would  be  deadening.  Criticism,  to  be  help- 
ful, must  be  cumulative,  not  wholesale; 
constructive,  not  destructive.  With  every 
word  of  censure  ought  to  come  the  word 
of  praise;  as, 

"  It  was  very  hard  to  hear  you,  John, 
and  those  ideas  were  worth  hearing. 
Practice  throwing  your  voice  to  the  stu- 
dents in  the  rear  of  the  room." 

To  another  we  say,  "  I  like  that  manly 
voice  and  careful  pronunciation.  How 
out  of  keeping  are  your  hands  in  your 
pockets,  Earl!  A  clean-cut  speech  and 
slouchy  position  do  not  go  well  together, 
do  they? " 


28  TALKS  WITH  OLDER  STUDENTS 

Suggestion  can  be  used  very  effectively 
with  poor  students.  When  we  noticed 
even  a  trace  of  something  good,  we  praised 
it,  magnified  it.  The  boy  unconsciously 
tried  to  live  up  to  our  idea.  One  of  the 
boys  from  the  country  was  so  embarrassed 
that  he  fixed  his  eyes  on  the  ceiling  and 
could  not  look  into  the  faces  of  the  class. 
It  was  painful  for  him ;  it  was  painful  for 
the  class ;  it  was  more  than  painful  for  the 
teacher.  It  was  a  problem  to  solve 
quickly.  One  day  in  the  midst  of  his  talk, 
she  spoke  to  him  from  her  seat  in  the  back 
of  the  room.  Naturally  his  eyes  dropped 
to  hers. 

"  Keep  talking  to  me,  Percy,"  she  said 
quietly.  He  did.  When  he  finished,  she 
remarked  casually,  "  How  interesting 
you  make  it  when  you  catch  our  eyes! 
Does  he  not,  boys? " 

The  rest  of  the  class  always  gallantly 
back  her  up ;  they  seem  to  see  what  she  is 
working  for  and  help,  too.  Percy  flushed 
with  pleasure.  The  next  time  he  talked, 
she  said  in  a  half-reminiscent  way,  "  I 
liked  the  way  you  looked  at  us  during 
your  last  speech.  What  are  you  going  to 


SELF-CRITICISM  29 

talk  about  to-day?  .  .  .  Catching  squir- 
rels? I  want  to  know  all  about  it,  and  so 
do  Agnes  and  Florence.  They  are  not 
from  the  country,  so  let  us  tell  them  some- 
thing they  do  not  know."  Percy  forced 
himself  to  drop  his  eyes  to  her  several 
times,  and  to  Agnes  and  Florence  possi- 
bly once  during  the  talk. 

It  takes  years  to  overcome  backward- 
ness. We  must  be  careful  not  to  increase 
the  timidity.  How  happy  the  boy  is  as 
he  learns  body-control,  eye-control,  hand- 
control,  tongue-control — in  a  word,  self- 
control  ! 

Towards  the  end  of  the  first  year,  pupils 
learned  to  hesitate  of  their  own  accord 
and  correct  mistakes.  For  instance — 

"  Longfellow  wrote  '  Evangeline/  '  Hi- 
awatha/ and  '  The  Courtship  of  Miles  Stand- 
ish/  They  was — they  were  all  long  poems/' 

Before  the  boy  attained  power  to  cor- 
rect himself  thus  without  reminder,  we 
rigidly  interrupted  him  for  glaring  mis- 
takes and  forced  him  to  hold  back  ideas, 
while  he  recast  the  sentence.  The  class 


30    TALKS  WITH  OLDER  STUDENTS 

noticed  the  improvement  in  the  second 
version,  so  that  it  was  a  demonstration  in 
English — a  sort  of  laboratory  experiment. 

AN  ENGLISH  CLUB 

With  one  class  a  pet  scheme  worked 
effectively.  When  we  had  talks,  we  often 
turned  the  class  into  a  club  with  a  student 
presiding.  The  teacher  sat  in  the  rear  of 
the  room,  keeping  in  card  catalogue  the 
good  and  the  bad  points  of  each  student. 
The  talks  were  usually  voluntary,  as  long 
as  possible,  thereby  forcing  the  backward 
ones  of  their  own  volition  to  master  their 
shyness.  Criticisms  were  given  from  the 
floor  by  students  rising  to  state  a  point  of 
order. 

Parliamentary  procedure  is  no  mean 
acquirement.  As  each  boy  served  in  the 
chair  in  turn,  power  to  preside  and  to 
draw  the  other  students  to  the  floor  was 
cultivated.  It  was  a  surprise  to  find  that, 
without  help  from  a  grown-up,  boys  and 
girls  themselves  were  able  to  exhaust  the 
contents  of  a  chapter,  each  one  drifting 
to  the  topic  that  interested  him  most. 


AN  ENGLISH  CLUB  31 

We  always  required  the  chapter  to  be 
outlined  on  paper,  not  only  for  the  prac- 
tice in  analysis,  but  as  proof  that  the 
student  had  done  his  night  work.  As  one 
by  one  his  favorite  topics  were  given, 
the  boy  was  forced  to  search  diligently  in 
mind  for  the  minor  topics.  Working  in 
league  with  the  presiding  officer,  we 
helped  the  latter  to  draw  out  the  timid  or 
to  censure  the  poorly-prepared. 

To  manage  such  club  work,  a  teacher 
has  to  be  in  close  sympathy  with  every 
student,  especially  to  draw  out  the  poor 
ones  and  to  induce  the  naturally  lazy  to 
exert  themselves.  Each  student  must  do 
his  share.  And  he  ought  to  do  it  volun- 
tarily, if  possible — -for  the  tonic  effect. 
From  varied  experience  in  teaching  both 
boys  and  girls  in  general  courses  and  in 
college  preparatory,  we  found  a  better, 
more  conscientious  response  if  we  some- 
times threw  the  running  of  affairs  into 
their  hands.  The  teacher's  own  hands 
were  amply  filled,  playing  "  Mentor."  In 
a  period  of  about  forty  minutes  we  had 
no  trouble  getting  twenty-five  "  one- 
minute  talks,"  but  there  was  no  lagging. 


32     TALKS  WITH  OLDER  STUDENTS 

The  Club  in  Working 

"  To-day  we  shall  have  the  club,"  is 
announced  with  a  smile.  "  Scott,  will  you 
please  preside." 

A  little  boy  with  a  wide,  white  collar 
takes  the  chair  at  the  desk.  He  looks  so 
much  like  the  John  Milton  whom  the 
Cambridge  students,  on  account  of  his 
delicate  features,  nicknamed  "  Our  Lady 
of  Christ's"  (Christ  College),  that  he 
makes  us  think  of  him  as  Young  Milton. 

Young  Milton  takes  up  the  gavel  (a 
small  croquet  mallet  donated  by  a  junior) 
and  speaks: 

'  The  club  will  come  to  order.  We  have 
talks  on  the  life  of  Whittier.  Who  will 
come  first?" 

This  work  comes  during  the  first  year ; 
they  have  outlined  the  chapter  for  night 
work.  An  extreme  sample  of  criticism  is 
here  given  to  show  parliamentary  proced- 
ure. 

"Mr.  President!" 

"Mr.  President!" 

Two  boys  are  on  their  feet. 

"  Mr.  MacLean,"  announces  Moderator 
Milton.  How  punctiliously  formal  boys 
are! 


" 

AN  ENGLISH  CLUB  33 

The  other  boy  sits  down  and  MacLean 
comes  to  the  front  of  the  room.  He 
begins : 

"  Whittier  is  remembered  best  for  his  poem 
'  Snowbound.'      It   was   written " 

"  Mr.  President,  I  rise  to  a  point  of 
order,"  says  a  boy,  who  has  risen  to  his 
feet. 

"  State  the  point." 

"  The  speaker  is  not  standing  in  the 
best  position.  He  is  on  one  foot  and 
catches  hold  of  the  desk." 

"  Stand  farther  back,  Mr.  MacLean, 
and  be  more  upright,"  suggests  the  chair- 
man. 

" It  was  written  about  eighteen  hundred 

and  sixty-four  and  describes  the  f am'ly  as  they 
liv " 

Two  boys  jump  to  their  feet. 

"  State  your  point,"  says  Milton  to  the 
first. 

"  He  mispronounced  fam-i-ly.  Omitted 
the  tV 

3 


34  TALKS  WITH  OLDER  STUDENTS 

"Don't  run  syllables  together,  Mr. 
MacLean." 

" and  described  his  fam-i-ly  when  they 

lived  together  at  the  farm.  There  was  the 
father,  the  mother " 

Four  lively  members  have  risen  to  call 
for  concord.  The  class  is  on  the  qui  vive, 
alert  and  eager-eyed,  practicing  grammar. 

MacLean  catches  himself  before  the 
chairman  speaks, 

" — There  were  the  father,  the  mother,  the 
uncle,  the  aunt,  the  school  teacher,  the  elder 
sister,  the  younger  sister  and  that  queer 
woman  who  chased  around  Europe  and " 

Nearly  half  the  class  are  on  their  feet. 

The  leader  has  decided  which  of  the  ten 
"  Mr.  President  "  's  deserves  recognition. 
So  Allan  Black  delivers  his  criticism  rapid 
fire:  "  '  Who  chased  around  Europe  '  is 
slang  and  it  also  isn't  true " 

"  Don't  talk  so  fast,"  reminds  Milton. 

"  It  makes  a  poor  ending  to  his  talk, 


AN  ENGLISH  CLUB  35 

sort  of  a  come-down.  And  weren't  those 
people  rather  awkwardly  strung  out? " 

The  chairman  nods.  MacLean  is  on  his 
feet  the  minute  the  critic  sits  down. 

"  Mr.  Chairman,"  he  asks,  "  is  it  ele- 
gant language  to  say  'strung  out'?" 
Then  he  sits  down. 

"  Mr.  Chairman,"  speaks  the  critic 
pluckily,  "  I  think  '  strung  out '  is  all 
right.  His  was  a  formal  talk;  my  re- 
marks were  informal.  '  Strung  out '  is 
also  a  figure,  suggesting  a  washline  with 
the  father,  mother,  uncle,  and  aunt  dan- 
gling from  it." 

For  two  minutes  a  hot  and  heavy  dis- 
cussion clears  the  air  of  any  sleep  germs 
that  may  hover  near.  Boys  particularly 
love  such  chances  to  apply  their  principles 
to  one  another.  They  do  it  good-humor- 
edly  and  are  careful  to  avoid  mistakes. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  there  are 
remarks  like  the  following: 

"  Mr.  Auxer,  you  may  have  the  floor." 

"  I  am  not  prepared." 

"  What  shall  he  do,  members  of  the 
club?" 

They  sit  quiet  for  a  moment,  then  a 


36     TALKS  WITH  OLDER  STUDENTS 

youth  who  is  also  on  the  "  not  prepared  " 
list  occasionally,  rises: 

"  I  move  that  he  see  Miss  Bolenius  after 
school  and  make  up  the  work." 

"  Second  it,"  says  another. 

"  All  in  favor  say  *  aye/  ' 

A  suppressed  chorus  of  "  ayes." 

"  Mr.  Auxer,"  says  Chairman  Milton, 
"  you  may  report  at  3:10  and  don't  let  it 
happen  again." 

And  it  probably  does  not  for  a  long 
time.  Is  it  not  funny  that  poor  students 
are  always  hardest  on  one  another ! 

Here  is  another  example: 

"  Miss  Colton,  you  may  speak." 

"  I  can't  think  of  anything." 

"  Have  you  done  your  night  work?  " 

"  Yes,  sir." 

"  Then  you  may  open  your  theme  book 
and  look  up  a  topic." 

In  a  few  minutes  Miss  Colton,  an  ex- 
ceedingly bashful  girl,  speaks.  The 
chairman  urges  her  to  come  forward  first 
next  time  before  topics  are  exhausted. 

This  club  method  made  a  Game  of 
Grammar,  where  before  it  had  been  a 
Bore.  It  gave  a  practical  use  for  rules 


TESTS  IN  ORAL  COMPOSITION      37 

and  rhetorical  principles.  Students  like 
self-management;  the  club  method  offers 
that  and  often  arouses  a  better  response 
than  the  most  efficient  teaching  can 
secure.  It  also  seems  as  if  they  are  re- 
citing before  a  jury  of  their  peers. 

TESTS  IN  ORAL  COMPOSITION 

You  may  be  surprised  to  find  examina- 
tions in  oral  composition,  but  they  are 
very  necessary  and  very  helpful.  Classes 
can  be  tested  in  three  or  four  ways. 

Impromptu  debates  were  quickly 
arranged,  whenever  the  subject  presented 
two  sides.  These  tested  the  student's 
ability  to  marshal  the  ideas  of  the  lesson 
and  to  meet  opposing  arguments. 

It  was  a  popular  plan  to  have  im- 
promptu talks  when  we  had  a  visitor.  The 
first  time,  we  were  a  bit  fearful  of  the  re- 
sult. The  night  work  had  not  been  in 
the  line  of  oral  composition,  therefore  each 
student  had  quickly  to  search  his  mind 
for  an  interesting  subject  to  talk  about. 

Were  we  not  proud  of  that  class !  Like 
a  man,  and  to  a  man,  they  came  forward, 


38     TALKS  WITH  OLDER  STUDENTS 

while  the  visitor  and  the  teacher  sat 
quietly  in  the  back  of  the  room.  Twenty 
spoke  on  subjects  vitally  interesting,  no 
criticism  of  any  kind  offered.  That  was  a 
rule  in  these  tests.  Then  there  was  a  lull. 

"Ah,  Lucian,  you  are  ready,  I  see," 
said  the  chairman. 

Now  Lucian  really  was  not,  but  he  went 
forward  and  gave  a  good  talk.  Another 
lull.  Two  girls  were  dumb  with  embar- 
rassment. The  presiding  officer  laughed 
to  relieve  the  situation,  then  spoke  as  if 
talking  confidentially: 

"  Mary  does  not  know  whether  to  go 
first,  or  Martha.  Suppose  this  time  Mary 
goes  first." 

Several  boys  smiled,  but  Mary  spoke 
and  Martha,  too,  both  nice  talks.  Then 
came  of  their  own  accord  the  two  most 
timid  boys.  How  proud  we  were!  And 
they  were  (secretly,  of  course)  proud  of 
themselves ! 

Another  Game  played  with  some  classes 
ran  like  this.  We  had  slips  of  paper  with 
a  question  on  each  slip.  These  a  boy 
handed  around  in  a  hat.  After  each  had 
chosen  one,  five  minutes  were  given  to 


TESTS  IN  ORAL  COMPOSITION      39 

think  out  and  write  down  a  brief  outline. 
This  forcing  of  opinion  is  good. 

Here  are  some  sample  questions :  What 
book  have  you  recently  enjoyed?  What 
kind  of  books  do  you  like  best?  What  is 
the  easiest  thing  you  can  cook?  What 
profession  would  you  like  to  enter?  What 
accomplishment  do  you  admire  most?  In 
each  outline  they  tried  to  tell  why.  It  is 
a  good  thing  to  rake  over  the  brain  field, 
searching  out  and  arranging  facts.  To 
do  it  quickly  counts  for  much. 

With  seniors,  reports  on  outside  read- 
ing were  the  most  satisfactory  tests.  These 
ran  from  five  to  twenty  minutes  in  length. 
Mrs.  Bolton's  Poor  Boys  Who  Became 
Famous,  and  Girls  Who  Became  Famous 
(in  fact,  all  of  her  books) ,  Thayer's  Turn- 
ing Points  in  Successful  Careers  and  Men 
Who  Win,  and  books  of  that  sort,  offer 
splendid  material.  While  the  report  was 
being  given,  the  class  took  full  notes  and 
thus  got  the  preparation  necessary  to  take 
notes  of  lectures  in  college.  The  speaker 
himself  learned  to  hold  in  mind  an  outline 
of  his  address  and  to  give  it  in  as  good 
form  as  possible. 


40    TALKS  WITH  OLDER  STUDENTS 

It  was  also  good  practice  for  certain 
students  to  give  talks  before  other  classes. 
The  younger  students  then  saw  what 
progress  the  senior  had  made  and  the 
senior  in  turn  practiced  on  new  and  criti- 
cal material. 

One  of  our  honor  boys  came  back  for  an 
afternoon  during  his  sophomore  year  in 
college  and  gave  in  several  half-hour  talks 
to  our  students  an  account  of  how  a  course 
in  extempore  speaking  is  managed  in  col- 
lege. It  was  a  practical  lesson  for  him 
and  at  the  same  time  showed  our  boys 
that  the  college  and  the  preparatory  school 
in  the  same  big  city  were  working  along 
the  same  lines. 

Efficiency  is  the  great  watchword  to- 
day. Let  us  give  our  boys  and  girls,  by 
practical  training  in  oral  composition,  the 
key  to  efficient  speech ! 

SUMMARY 

Chapter  II  brings  forcefully  to  mind 
the  question,  Do  our  schools  bring  out 
a  well-rounded  development?  It  urges  the 
teacher  to  regard  the  boy's  manner  in 


SUMMARY  41 

speech,  as  well  as  his  words,  for  a  pleasing 
address  is  a  valuable  business  and  social 
asset.  Therefore,  it  insists  that  the  suc- 
cessful teacher  is  the  one  who  brings  the 
boy  out  in  all  points.  It  shows  that  criti- 
cism must  be  cumulative  and  constructive, 
rather  than  destructive.  By  the  use  of 
suggestion  it  shows  how  such  improvement 
can  be  made  with  slow  pupils.  In  a  word, 
the  chapter  appeals  to  the  teacher  to  let 
the  students  teach  themselves;  to  show 
them  how  to  criticise  themselves,  thus 
making  them  independent  of  the  teacher. 
By  introducing  voluntary  response,  it  puts 
into  the  boys'  hands  a  splendid  means  for 
developing  will  power. 

Furthermore,  instead  of  following  the 
traditional  procedure  in  the  classroom,  the 
club  method  brings  out  a  brisk  procedure 
that  is  conducive  to  mental  activity.  The 
cooperation,  the  relaxation,  the  buoyancy, 
the  moving-about  the  room,  all  tend  to 
quicken  interest;  and  if  they  quicken  inter- 
est, they  are  in  line  with  the  best  teaching. 
Criticism  by  members  of  the  club,  instead 
of  by  the  teacher,  furnishes  a  daily  prac- 
tice in  Grammar  and  Rhetoric.  It  demon- 


42    TALKS  WITH  OLDER  STUDENTS 

stfates  the  use  of  rules  and  laws  of  effi- 
cient speech,  tedious  to  the  learner.  The 
chapter  shows  how  actual  preparation  in 
college  methods  can  be  given  by  using  the 
by-products  in  the  classroom.  The  best 
test  of  a  method  is  its  success  with  poor 
students;  the  good  students  will  succeed 
in  spite  of  a  method.  In  conclusion,  the 
sample  lesson  of  the  club  in  working 
actually  shows  how  such  a  method  is  used. 
It  demands  improvement,  accomplish- 
ment, actual  progress  towards  the  ideal, 
definite  improvement  in  speech,  noticeable 
by  others  in  the  class.  In  a  word,  it  ap- 
peals for  efficiency,  for  such  English 
training  as  will  be  needed  in  life. 


CHAPTER  III 

WHAT  TO  AVOID  IN  ORAL  COMPOSITION 

FAILURE  in  oral  composition  may  arise 
in  managing  an  entire  class  or  in  dealing 
with  the  individual.  Sometimes  very  little 
things  turn  the  tide  and  change  what  had 
promise  of  brilliant  success  to  dismal 
failure.  Pitfalls  lie  in  the  way  of  the 
young  teacher,  waiting  to  trap  inexpe- 
rienced feet. 

There  are  two  ways  to  deal  with  pitfalls 
of  any  kind:  first,  mark  them  with  a 
danger  sign;  secondly,  if  the  person  has 
fallen  in,  show  a  way  out.  This  chapter, 
then,  will  deal  largely  with  "  don'ts." 

DO  NOT  FAIL  TO   HEAR  FROM  ALL  OF  THE 
CLASS 

The  great  slogan  of  our  public  schools 
is,  "  Every  boy  his  chancel  "  To  manage 
oral  composition  successfully,  therefore, 
the  English  teacher  must  have  executive 
ability,  the  sort  of  generalship  that  will 
bring  every  student  to  the  floor.  There 

43 


44  WHAT  TO  AVOID 

must  be  no  monopoly  by  the  glib  speakers, 
no  partiality  on  the  teacher's  side.  It 
is  easily  possible  to  give  twenty-five 
talks  in  a  period  of  forty  minutes.  If 
criticism  is  offered,  it  takes  longer;  two 
days  may  be  needed  to  go  round. 

Waste  no  time  getting  speakers  to  the 
floor.  By  ingenuity  keep  the  talks  volun- 
tary as  long  as  possible;  there  is  a  moral 
tonic  in  a  boy's  deliberate  choice  to  do 
something.  If  you  have  turned  the  class 
into  a  club,  allow  no  dilly-dallying.  A 
quiet  haste  and  minimum  of  friction  will 
bring  results.  So  much  for  the  students 
that  are  ready  to  do  their  part. 

"  How  about  the  timid,  the  backward, 
the  uninterested?  "  some  one  asks.  "  Shall 
they  be  allowed  to  drift  ? " 

"  Never!  Use  every  trace  of  tact  you 
have,  every  possible  appeal,  every  legiti- 
mate trick,  to  bring  them  into  the  work." 

In  previous  chapters  have  been  illus- 
trated several  ways  to  induce  students  to 
take  part.  It  is  necessary  to  feel  with  the 
backward  and  the  slow ;  to  have  that  deep 
sympathy  that  makes  them  know  you 
understand.  One  must  play  "  watch- 


DO  NOT  SACRIFICE  THE  LESSON    45 

dog,"  too,  and  see  that  there  are  no  un- 
necessary quibbles,  no  "  sneaking  "  out  of 
talks,  no  wasting  of  the  time  of  the  class. 
In  our  experience,  it  is  a  pleasure  to  state, 
we  have  found  an  almost  universal  interest 
and  effort. 

DO  NOT  SACRIFICE  THE  LESSON  TO  ORAL 
COMPOSITION 

The  inexperienced  teacher  tends  to  run 
to  extremes.  If  she  does  not  know  how  to 
manage  this  work  in  connection  with  the 
regular  English  lesson,  she  will  soon  find 
in  her  zeal  for  oral  composition  that  the 
other  features  of  English  work  are 
suffering. 

"How  are  you  to  avoid  that?"  some 
one  asks. 

"  Easily,"  is  the  answer.  "  Make  use 
of  the  subject-matter  of  the  regular  les- 
son, which  was  night  work,  A  series  of 
talks  on  a  chapter  of  American  Literature 
(for  instance,  the  life  of  Longfellow)  is 
nothing  more  than  a  series  of  topical  reci- 
tations, delivered  from  the  front  of  the 
room  instead  of  from  the  seats. 

"  Let  pupils  do  the  searching  out  of 


46  WHAT  TO  AVOID 

topics  for  discussion,  instead  of  the 
teacher.  Too  long,  indeed,  has  the  teacher 
been  the  one  to  go  to  school,  to  prepare 
lessons,  to  search  out  questions — and  to 
get  the  results  of  such  mental  activity. 
Why  not  let  the  boys  and  the  girls  get  the 
same  results !  Let  them  teach  themselves 
under  your  guidance. 

"  Anything  that  is  to  be  recited  can  be 
used  as  material  for  '  one-minute  talks/ 
Correlate  them  with  the  other  lessons  if 
you  can.  Reports  in  history,  civics,  even 
chemistry  and  physics,  can  be  given  this 
way." 

Oral  composition  is  not  to  supplant 
written  themes.  Both  have  their  legiti- 
mate place,  and,  as  we  have  pointed  out, 
both  can  be  used  without  lessening  the 
work  in  the  classics  or  in  the  text-book. 

DO  NOT  FAIL  TO  AROUSE  INTEREST 

"  What's  the  use  of  all  this  stuff! "  ex- 
claims a  boy  on  the  first  day  in  the  Eng- 
lish room.  "I'm  going  in  for  engineer- 
ing!" 

Now  is  the  time  to  score  point  one. 
Instead  of  delivering  a  didactic  harangue 


AROUSE  INTEREST  47 

on  the  value  of  literature,  it  is  more  adroit 
to  talk  casually  about  conversation  and 
good  story-telling — to  start  preaching 
English  on  his  level. 

Boys  soon  grasp  the  fact  that  a  clever 
conversationalist  is  in  demand  socially. 
Telling  a  joke  well  is  an  art  no  boy  de- 
spises. From  joke-telling  it  is  only  a  step 
to  toast-making.  Most  young  people  have 
a  secret  thrill  when  they  read  newspaper 
accounts  of  big  banquets  and  "  celebrities 
speechifying."  Some  day  they  may  be 
doing  that,  too!  And  speeches  in  class 
meeting — they  had  not  thought  of  them! 
True,  "  the  fellow  who  can  say  his  say 
out  in  the  most  forceful  way  will  win!" 
Yes,  they  begin  to  see. 

"And  salesmanship,"  we  suggest. 

"Why  those  people  have  to  have  the 
'  gift  of  gab  ' ! "  blurts  out  a  first-monther. 

"  And  doctors,  lawyers,  merchants — — " 

we   begin,    as   if   counting   off   buttons. 

*  Why,  boys!  you  can  not  help  but  see 

that  talking  well  is  so  much  money  in  a 

man's  pocket  and  credit  to  his  name." 

*  You  bet ! "  says  the  above  boy,  more 
forcibly  than  elegantly. 


48  WHAT  TO  AVOID 

"  We'll  put  him  out  " — and  four  older 
boys  grab  him  for  expulsion  from  the 
English  room—  "  he's  using  slang!  " 

If  we  make  students  see  that  a  pre- 
possessing appearance,  a  pleasant  address, 
and  a  ready  flow  of  words,  help  them  to 
secure  "a  job  "  more  quickly  and  to  ad- 
vance in  the  same  "  job  "  more  rapidly, 
Tom,  Dick,  and  Harry  immediately  affix 
a  financial  value  to  the  English  period,  as 
well  as  a  cultural. 

DO  NOT  CHOOSE  UNINTERESTING  SUBJECTS 

To  kill  interest  in  "  one-minute  talks  " 
assign  such  subjects  as  Patience,  Charity, 
and  Nature.  Only  lively,  timely  subjects 
will  pass  muster  with  a  group  of  sixteen- 
year-olds.  Boys  and  girls  are  in  their 
colthood,  puppy  days,  kitten  age,  when 
the  great  Spirit  of  Play  is  king. 

Why  not  develop  the  boy's  point  of 
view?  and  the  girl's?  Is  it  not  possible, 
highly  probable,  that  on  subjects  within 
their  ken,  they  are  more  at  home  than  you  I 
Then,  since  more  at  home,  what  they  have 
to  say  has  weight. 


DO  NOT  EMPHASIZE  ONE  PHASE    49 

Let  the  boy  exult  in  his  fishing  and 
hunting  and  camping;  let  him  give  minute 
details  about  kite-flying  and  aeroplane- 
making.  There  is  a  great  middle  ground  of 
subject-matter,  interesting  to  boy,  girl, 
and  grown-up  alike.  Find  the  hobbies  of 
the  class  and  cater  to  them. 

DO  NOT  EMPHASIZE  ONE  PHASE  OF  THE 

TALK  AT  THE  EXPENSE  OF 

THE   OTHERS 

One  can  not  expect  perfection,  but  one 
can  look  for  a  reasonably  well-rounded 
development.  In  the  second  chapter  we 
went  to  some  length  in  showing  that  all 
four  phases  of  a  "  one-minute  talk  "  were 
important. 

We  teachers  have  our  hobbies,  our  likes 
and  dislikes,  our  special  aptitudes.  If 
one  is  particularly  fond  of  expression, 
there  is  a  strong  temptation  to  dwell 
mostly  on  voice  and  delivery.  Another 
teacher  may  be  a  faddist  about  style,  and 
sacrifice  on  that  altar  voice,  delivery,  and 
ideas. 

There  are  not  many  world-astounding 
4 


50  WHAT  TO  AVOID 

ideas  slumbering  under  the  cap  of  a  six- 
teen-year-old boy,  but  there  may  be  count- 
less original  ideas  and  odd  expressions. 
Therefore,  it  is  well  to  keep  the  Four 
Track  development  constantly  in  mind. 

DO   NOT  ENCOURAGE   "  HOT  AIR  " 

How  many  teachers,  when  asked  a  ques- 
tion they  did  not  know,  rather  than  admit 
ignorance,  felt  all  around  the  subject, 
punched  it  gently  in  the  sides,  scurried 
around  the  right  flank  and  wound  up  with 
a  stab  somewhere  near  where  they  started ! 
They  may  have  felt  better,  but  probably 
no  one  was  deceived, — they  did  not  know 
what  they  were  talking  about. 

Students  are  very  much  the  same  when 
they  are  not  prepared,  that  is,  if  they  have 
"  the  nerve,"  a  grown-up  quality.  They 
flounder  about  and  indulge  in  "  hot  air," 
often  to  the  admiring  wonder  of  the  class. 
We  all  know  the  bluffer ! 

What  will  prevent  bluffing? 

There  are  two  ways.  Choose  subjects 
of  vital  interest  and  within  the  reach  of 
the  bluffer,  and  require  outlines. 


DO  NOT  DRILL  OUTLINES  BLINDLY  51 

DO   NOT   DRILL   OUTLINES    BLINDLY    UNTIL 
STUDENTS  HATE  THEM 

The  "  do  "  and  the  "  don't  "  are  some- 
times very  closely  joined.  Outline  work 
must  not  be  made  irksome.  If  students 
see  that  a  well-constructed  outline  is  to 
serve  them,  they  do  not  often  feel  that 
it  has  enslaved  them. 

An  occasional  impromptu  outline  in  five 
minutes  at  the  beginning  of  the  period  is 
good.  When  we  wished  talks  thought 
out  and  did  not  care  to  use  the  substance 
of  the  night's  assignment,  we  also  gave  as 
night  work  the  outline  of  a  talk. 

A  teacher  must  develop  a  keen  sensi- 
tiveness, so  as  to  keep  all  lines  of  work 
carefully  in  hand,  for  she  is  driving  more 
than  a  pair, — and  not  tandem,  but  abreast. 

DO   NOT  DISCOURAGE   BY   TOO    MUCH    CON- 
DEMNATION OR  SPOIL  BY  TOO  MUCH 
PRAISE 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  praise  and  censure 
equally.  Too  much  censure  makes  a  pupil 
self-conscious,  stubborn,  or  disgusted;  too 
much  praise,  on  the  other  hand,  makes  him 


52  WHAT  TO  AVOID 

conceited  and  satisfied  with  what  he  has 
done.  They  are  the  Scylla  and  Charybdis 
in  teaching. 

Discrimination  must  be  used  in  the 
amount  of  praise  and  blame.  Wholesale 
criticisms  deaden;  so  does  wholesale 
praise. 

"  John,  your  voice  is  fine,  so  strong  and 
well-modulated.  Keep  on  and  you  will 
make  an  orator,"  we  commend.  Then  we 
add,  "  But  your  position  is  very  awkward. 
Hold  your  shoulders  up  and  stand  erect. 
We  must  cure  that !  " 

Now  John  has  two  things  to  work  for. 
He  does  not  rest  on  his  oars,  not  he !  He 
tries  even  harder.  Why,  he  might  make 
the  contest  team!  The  criticism  of  his 
position  was  so  definite  that  he  can  im- 
prove in  that.  How  he  straightened  up 
involuntarily,  whenever  he  saw  a  teacher 
in  the  halls ! 

DO  NOT  LET  CORRECTION  GO  IN  ONE  EAR  AND 
OUT  THE  OTHER 

The  fault  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah! 
This  would  not  happen  with  a  class  un- 
less the  teacher  were  very  careless.     It 


LET  THE  CLASS  GET  BENEFIT      53 

might  happen  with  a  single  pupil,  even  if 
the  teacher  was  a  brilliant  success.  Such 
cases,  however,  can  often  be  cured  in  time, 
as  most  abnormal  cases  can,  if  dealt  with 
rightly. 

Keep  a  record  of  mistakes  and  good 
points  that  registers,  as  it  were,  the  liter- 
ary temperature  of  each  student.  The 
words  of  criticism  can  be  written  down  by 
each  pupil  below  his  outline  of  the  talk. 
Demand  eradication  of  these  same  faults. 
By  the  use  of  suggestion  the  pupil  can  be 
led  to  overcome  many  of  them. 

A  good  plan  is  to  file  away  in  card- 
board covers  all  of  the  written  work  in 
English,  including  the  ground- work  out- 
lines of  talks;  that  is,  let  the  student  do 
the  filing.  The  teacher  can  examine  these 
each  month  and  note  the  improvement. 

DO  NOT  FAIL  TO  LET  THE  CLASS  GET  THE 
BENEFIT  AS  WELL  AS  THE  SPEAKER 

In  our  thousand  years  of  education  so 
much  time  has  been  unused  by  the  rest  of 
the  class  when  the  individual  student  was 
reciting.  Why  not  have  team  play? 


54  WHAT  TO  AVOID 

While  a  student  is  giving  his  topical 
recitation  (or  talk) ,  there  are  at  least  four 
different  things  that  the  class  can  do 
while  they  listen  to  him.  First,  they  can 
take  critical  notes  of  the  way  he  is  talking, 
thus  developing  their  critical  faculties. 
They  can  be  turned  into  a  club  and  prac- 
tice parliamentary  law  by  rising  to  a  point 
of  order  and  criticising  the  talk.  This 
prepares  for  literary  society  work.  They 
can  train  their  power  of  analysis  and 
learn  to  take  notes  of  college  lectures  by 
outlining  the  substance  of  the  talks.  The 
business  students  ought  to  try  their  short- 
hand. Finally,  their  power  of  attention 
can  be  tested  by  five-minute  summaries 
at  the  end  of  the  period. 

It  is  wise  to  cultivate  team  play  and 
combinations  of  work.  Correlation  pays. 

DO  NOT  BE  DISCOURAGED 

Theory  and  practice  in  oral  composi- 
tion go  together;  they  can  not  be  divorced. 
As  teachers  take  up  serious  work  in  "  one- 
minute  talks  "  in  their  classes,  they  will 
find  a  great  satisfaction  in  the  way  stu- 


SUMMARY  55 

dents  develop,  that  is,  if  they  themselves 
seek  the  tact,  the  sympathy,  the  liveliness, 
the  enthusiasm,  and  the  knowledge,  to 
draw  out  results. 

Oral  composition  demands  much  fer- 
tility of  thought,  ingenuity  of  method,  and 
systematic  perseverance,  if  it  is  to  succeed. 
It  is  worth  working  for,  however,  as  suc- 
cess comes,  and  joy  with  it. 

SUMMARY 

Chapter  III  shows  definitely  how  to 
combine  various  kinds  of  English  work 
with  oral  composition;  how  to  combine 
both  praise  and  blame;  and  how  to  get 
actual  eradication  of  faults.  It  urges  the 
cultivation  of  the  play  spirit,  the  use  of 
team  play.  It  insists  on  teaching  from 
the  boytf  level.  The  pupils'  plans  and 
ideas  must  be  made  the  starting  point. 
The  teacher  must  become  a  boy  or  a  girl 
to  see  difficulties  from  the  learner's  stand- 
point. The  chapter  appeals  for  breadth 
in  teaching,  rather  than  onesidedness,  and 
the  use  of  all  possible  resources  to  attain 
the  same.  It  emphasizes  the  connection 


56  WHAT  TO  AVOID 

of  such  work  in  oral  composition  with 
daily  life,  by  attaching  a  social,  business, 
financial  value  to  effective  speech.  It 
urges  attention  to  classroom  atmosphere, 
to  the  spirit  of  the  teacher.  By  pointing 
out  actual  pitfalls  it  tries  to  guide.  Last 
of  all,  it  pleads  for  the  pupils  to  get  the 
results  that  the  teacher  has  taken  for  him- 
self by  pampering  his  pupils  intellectually, 
by  doing  the  work  they  should  do  them- 
selves. It  urges  sensible  use  of  outlines 
as  a  thought-clarifies 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  CHOICE  OF  A  SUBJECT 

A  LAW  of  affinity  works  in  rhetoric  as 
well  as  in  life.  The  right  subject  attracts 
the  boy  or  the  girl  and  leads  to  a  profitable 
further  acquaintance. 

The  subject  is  the  germ  of  the  talk  or 
of  the  theme.  The  person  who  senses  its 
value  is  the  wide-awake  teacher  or  the 
interested  student.  Since  the  medium  in 
which  it  is  to  grow  is  the  gray  matter  of 
the  student's  brain,  suit  the  subject  to  the 
culture  of  the  young  mind. 

WAYS    OF    USING    ^ONE-MINUTE    TALKS " 

In  four  ways  we  used  these  "  one- 
minute  talks  "  effectively.  In  the  first 
place,  a  talk  was  occasionally  written  out, 
memorized,  and  given  in  class  or  in  the 
literary  society.  Since  the  gathering  of 
ideas  and  perfecting  of  style  were  done 
beforehand,  the  student  concentrated  on 
his  position,  his  voice,  and  his  gestures  in 

57 


58  CHOICE  OF  A  SUBJECT 

delivery.  He  had  a  chance  to  work  on 
oratory  and  expression.  Such  pne-  or 
two-minute  talks  can  be  made  very  useful 
numbers  on  the  literary  society  program, 
because  they  offer  a  field  for  the  young 
and  inexperienced  pupil. 

In  the  next  kind  of  talk  the  student  pre- 
pared his  subject-matter  in  outline;  as, 

Chaucer  and  Johnson  very  unlike: 
I  In  description  of  persons, 

(1)  Chaucer's    are    individuals,   clear- 
cut,  easily  pictured. 

(2)  Johnson's  are  types,  too  general, 
hazy. 

II  In  use  of  words, 

(1)  Chaucer's    use    of    plain,    simple 
words,   easily   understood   by   the 
people  of  his  time. 

(2)  Johnson's  use  of  ponderous  high- 
'  sounding   Latin   derivatives,   hard 

to  follow. 

In  giving  this  talk  he  not  only  concen- 
trated on  delivery  and  position,  but  on 
style,  on  the  phrasing  of  the  sentences. 
How  quickly  the  boy  felt  the  disad- 


"ONE-MINUTE  TALKS"  59 

vantage  of  a  limited  vocabulary!  He 
began  to  pay  attention  to  the  structure  of 
sentences,  particularly  if  by  diagrams, 
like  the  following,  the  various  molds  were 
placed  before  his  eyes. 


TOPIC 
STATEMENT 


REASON  1 

BALANCED  SENTENCE 

(Contrasts) 
REASON  2  .  • '• 


REASON  3 

i 


REASON  4  . 


REASON  5 


In  these  two  methods  plenty  of  time 
was  allowed  for  the  assembling  of  ideas. 
The  next  two  ways,  however,  increased  the 
pupil's  power  to  do  his  own  thinking.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  period  we  announced: 

"  Five  minutes  now  to  outline  a  subject 
for  a  talk." 

All  the  better  if  they  had  not  expected 
the  announcement!  This  now  meant 
quick  thinking;  first,  for  the  theme  or  sub- 
ject, then,  for  its  expansion.  When  tlie 


60  CHOICE  OF  A  SUBJECT 

class  became  accustomed  to  the  exercise, 
they  put  their  outlines  in  shape  in  five 
minutes. 

At  the  beginning  it  was  wise  to  write  a 
dozen  suggestive  subjects  on  the  board 
for  the  slow  thinkers  to  choose  from,  if 
their  own  minds  were  barren.  They  were 
urged  not  to  take  these  subjects  except  as 
a  last  resort.  While  they  were  thinking 
and  writing  we  passed  rapidly  from  one 
to  the  other,  encouraging  and  suggesting. 

For  all  of  the  above,  subjects  outside  of 
the  text-book  offered  the  best  material. 
Text-book  matter  could  always  be  used 
in  the  fourth  method — entirely  ex- 
temporaneous "  one-minute  talks."  These 
were  nothing  more  than  topical  recitations 
given  from  the  front  of  the  room.  A 
more  difficult  task  and  a  finer  test  of  the 
student's  control  of  himself,  his  brain,  and 
his  tongue,  were  talks  "  hot  off  the  reel " 
— no  subject  from  the  text-book  or  out- 
lined beforehand.  This  showed  how  fer- 
tile was  his  brain,  how  facile  his  tongue 
in  throwing  ideas  into  suitable  expres- 
sion, how  easy  his  manner,  and  how  pleas- 
ing his  voice. 


"ONE-MINUTE  TALKS"  61 

So  much  for  the  method  of  expression, 
now  for  the  length  of  the  talk.  With  be- 
ginners we  limited  the  talks  rigidly  to  one 
minute  because  time  was  consumed  mak- 
ing suggestions,  persuading  the  timid,  and 
explaining.  With  older  students  one 
minute  was  also  advisable  because  it  in- 
sured every  boy  his  chance.  Much  can  be 
said  in  one  minute.  The  famous  Gettys- 
burg speech  can  be  delivered  in  less  than 
two  minutes. 

Longer  reports,  from  five  to  twenty 
minutes  in  length,  were  called  for  from 
the  seniors.  In  a  previous  chapter  we 
referred  to  certain  biographical  matter 
in  which  separate  chapters  furnished  an 
abundance  of  splendid  material.  It  was 
without  doubt  a  tax  on  the  teacher's  in- 
genuity to  work  in  such  reports,  but  they 
amply  paid  in  results  gained.  We 
always  had  them  when  the  class  work  and 
the  night  preparation  could  profitably  give 
way  to  them.  The  rest  of  the  class  in- 
variably took  full  notes  of  the  reports, 
thus  getting  the  training  for  college  note- 
taking.  Many  a  boy  and  many*a  girl  will 
thank  the  teacher  for  familiarizing  them 


63  CHOICE  OF  A  SUBJECT 

with  college  methods.  If  the  preparatory 
school  prepares  for  college  properly,  it 
ought  to  prepare  not  only  the  required 
material,  but  the  methods  in  use  in  college 
work. 

HELPING  THE  STUDENTS  TO  THINK A 

SAMPLE  LESSON 

"What  on  earth  shall  I  talk  about?" 
is  a  cry  we  all  hear.  "  I  haven't  a  thought 
in  my  head! " 

'  There  are  nine  thought-producers  I 
can  think  of,"  we  begin.  "  Suppose  you 
write  them  down  for  constant  reference 
as  we  draw  them  from  the  class.  Who 
will  give  one  source  of  ideas? " 

Several  hands  are  up. 

"  Reading,"  answers  John.  "  Last 
week  I  finished  The  Young  Carthaginian 
and  it  told  me  a  lot  about  Hannibal." 

"  I  read  The  Honorable  Peter  Stirl- 
ing/' offers  another.  "  It 's  a  good  politi- 
cal novel.  Isn't  modern  fiction  as  good 
as  the  old  classics?  " 

We  discuss  in  a  few  words  what  makes 
a  classic  and  the  relative  merits  of  the  old 
classics  and  modern  fiction.  Then  Mary 
Gray  inquires: 


HELPING  STUDENTS  TO  THINK     68 

"  Are  not  the  magazines  good  read- 

ing?" 

After  a  brief  discussion  of  the  kinds  and 
grades  of  magazines,  we  decide  that  the 
classics,  the  best  modern  books,  and  the 
best  magazines  are  valuable  sources  of 
material. 

"  Don't  you  learn  a  lot  from  using  your 
eyes?"  asks  Tom. 

"  What  do  you  call '  using  your  eyes'? " 

"  Observation,"  blurts  out  a  boy  in  the 
rear. 

"  I  wonder  how  many  can  describe 
accurately  the  walk  to  school  or  give  a 
complete  picture  of  study  hall?" 

Some,  of  course,  are  sure  they  can;  let 
them  try,  and  see  how  soon  they  are 
tripped  up  by  a  more  observant  brother. 
Hold  up  a  picture,  then  put  it  away  and 
see  how  many  have  the  details. 

'  With  what  do  we  observe? " 

"  The  eyes." 

The  explanation  of  perception  brings 
the  quick  remark: 

'  Why,  we  can  observe  with  all  the 
senses — sight,  taste,  smell,  hearing " 

We  speak  for  a  few  minutes  on  cultiva- 


64  CHOICE  OF  A  SUBJECT 

tion  of  the  senses.  How  few  of  us  have 
all  the  senses  well-trained!  The  class  is 
much  interested  in  an  account  of  various 
occupations,  like  tea-tasting,  in  which  the 
training  consists  in  greatly  developing 
one  of  the  senses.  We  talk,  then,  of 
scientific  investigation,  laboratory  work, 
and  decide  that  observation  is  the  second 
great  source  of  ideas. 

"What  else?  "we  ask. 

"  I  learn  a  lot  from  Grandpa,"  says  one 
boy.  "  He  was  in  the  Civil  War  and  at 
supper  we  talk  about  all  sorts  of  battles 
and  things." 

1  Yes,  conversation  is  a  profitable 
source.  Do  you  remember  the  old  phil- 
osopher who  taught  his  pupils  by  asking 
them  questions  that  made  them  think?  " 

Before  the  words  are  spoken,  our  Greek 
boy  has  a  hand  up. 

"  Socrates,"  he  says  proudly. 

A  girl  speaks :  "  Didn't  they  make 
more  of  conversation  years  ago?  The 
French  had  salons— 

We  speak  of  the  advantage  of  talking 
about  real  things,  about  getting  the  facts, 
as  reporters  do. 


HELPING  STUDENTS  TO  THINK     65 


'What  else?"  we  insist. 

Tom  speaks:  "  Some  people  make  up 
things — stories  and  books — out  of  their 
heads  or  tell  their  own  experiences." 

"What  do  they  do  when  they  create 
those  imaginary  scenes  and  characters?  " 

He  does  not  know,  so  Mary  answers: 
"  Imagine  I" 

Down  go  imagination  and  experience 
as  great  sources,  with  a  eulogy  of  the 
powerful  imaginations  of  the  world. 

"Wouldn't  a  Physics  book  be  a 
source?  "  asks  a  practical  boy. 

'  Yes,  indeed ;  and  a  very  authoritative 
source.  In  fact,  all  your  text-books  are 
the  greatest  source  of  all  for  you  just 


now." 


We  review  the  sources:  reading,  ob- 
servation, conversation,  imagination,  ex- 
perience, text-books..  Then  comes  the 
next  question: 

"  Can  you  tell  me  three  other  devices 
that  will  help  you  to  force  out  thought?  " 

A  ready  student  answers:  "  Abstracts, 
or  summaries  of  outside  reading." 

"  Making  us  form  opinions  by  asking 
us  questions,"  comes  from  another. 
5 


66  CHOICE  OF  A  SUBJECT 

"  Keeping  a  journal,"  announces  Ray- 
mond solemnly. 

Summarizing  forces  a  student  to  dis- 
criminate and  give  only  the  chief  facts 
in  the  best  order.  Keeping  a  journal — if 
only  five  minutes  a  day — forces  him  to 
form  opinions,  to  be  observant.  With 
some  thirty  students  who  followed  the 
suggestion  we  noticed  a  great  improve- 
ment in  ideas  and  in  quickness  in  marshal- 
ling them. 

We  sometimes  had  little  tests  in  form- 
ing opinions.  We  placed  on  the  board 
five  questions  for  discussion.  These  were 
both  broad  and  restricted;  as,  "What 
sense  has  been  most  valuable  to  mankind, 
and  why?  ",  "  Do  you  think  self-govern- 
ment would  be  practicable  in  our  school? " , 
etc.  The  remarks  were  always  interesting 
and  usually  sensible. 

QUALIFICATIONS  OF  THE  GOOD 
SUBJECT 

The  old-fashioned  type  of  subject  has 
gone  the  merry  way  to  everlasting  ob- 
livion. It  is  obsolete. 


GOOD  SUBJECT  67 

In  the  first  place,  the  subject  must  suit 
the  audience.  In  this  case  it  is  an  audience 
of  school  boys.  A  theological  statement 
of  the  Eucharist,  a  medical  description 
of  Locomotor  Ataxia,  or  a  pedagogical 
monograph  on  the  Psychology  of  the 
Child  would  be  as  unsuitable  in  the  class- 
room as  talks  on  flying  kites,  trapping, 
or  playing  baseball  would  be  in  a  medical 
clinic. 

In  the  second  place,  the  subject  must 
suit  the  speaker.  That  is  why  a  cut-and- 
dried  subject  is  not  so  good  as  individual 
choice  or  a  range  of  subjects  put  on  the 
board  or  taken  from  the  text-book.  A 
boy  interested  in  mechanics  naturally 
drifts  to  that  kind  of  subject;  a  girl  would 
choose  something  different. 

The  subject  ought  to  be  interesting  in 
itself,  so  that  it  holds  the  majority  in  the 
class.  It  ought  to  be  treated  from  the 
boy's  or  the  girl's  point  of  view, — not  from 
the  viewpoint  of  the  grown-up. 

It  ought  to  contain  that  elusive  quality 
we  call  Human  Interest;  it  will,  if  it  holds 
the  majority  of  the  class. 


68  CHOICE  OF  A  SUBJECT 

Finally,  it  must  be  restricted  to 
proper  bounds.  This  the  class  must  be 
taught  to  do. 

A  SAMPLE  LESSON 

"  What  are  you  going  to  talk  about, 
John? "  we  ask. 

"  Indians " 

"  Dear  me,  that  will  take  a  long  time. 
You  know  books  have  been  written  on  the 
subject." 

"  With  the  early  settlers,"  he  restricts. 

"O— h!  I  see,"  we  put  in.  "  You  are 
going  to  tell  us  about  the  treaties." 

"  No,"  he  says  slowly.  "  I'm  going  to 
talk  about  the  way  Indians  made  war  on 
the  Colonial  settlements." 

"  That's  fine!  "  we  compliment.  "  Do 
you  see,  class,  he  has  restricted  his  sub- 
ject, first  in  time  (Colonial  days  rather 
than  the  present  life  on  the  reservation), 
then  in  place  (along  the  Colonial  frontier 
rather  than  in  the  far  west),  last  in  topic 
(warfare  rather  than  religion,  appearance, 
etc.).  That  gives  him  something  very 
definite  to  talk  about  and  makes  it  easy 
to  stick  to  the  subject." 


SUBJECT-MATTER  69 

Then  the  students  are  given  some  prac- 
tice in  restricting  subjects  in  different 
ways;  as, 

Schools: 

Schools  in  Greece; 
Schools  in  Greece  in  ancient  times; 
What  they  studied  in  the  schools  of  ancient 
Athens. 

Schools: 

Schools  in  America  (Pittsburgh); 
Schools  and  their  literary  societies  in  Pitts- 
burgh; 
Will  our  society  win  the  contest  this  year? 

Schools : 

Schools  to-day  in  England; 

Public  schools  in  England  to-day; 

The  present  day  Eton; 

Queer  customs  at  Eton  to-day. 

SUBJECT-MATTER 

Draw  from  the  class  the  great  fields  of 
knowledge — science,  art,  literature,  his- 
tory, nature,  biography,  religion.  It  is 
also  well  to  keep  before  them  that  popular 


70  CHOICE  OF  A  SUBJECT 

definition  of  an  educated  man:  "One 
who  knows  something  about  everything 
and  everything  about  something."  We 
are  too  prone  to  run  to  specialization  with- 
out the  broad  foundation.  Urge  them  to 
broaden  their  field  of  knowledge  by  read- 
ing, thinking,  conversation,  and  observa- 
tion. 

For  beginners,  personal  experiences 
make  a  good  starting-point. 

*  Tell  who,  when,  where,  and  what 
happened,"  comes  the  direction.  Then 
we  outline  on  the  board: 

Introductory  sentence — who,  when,  where; 
Development — necessary  details ; 
Climax — point  of  the  story; 
Conclusion — how  it  turned  out. 

Exercises  in  paragraph  development 
are  good:  giving  the  topic  sentence  and 
letting  students  develop  by  details,  by 
causes,  by  results,  by  specific  instances. 
Recounting  jokes  and  anecdotes  is  great 
fun  and  teaches  dialogue.  Descriptions 
of  various  processes,  trades,  occupations, 
etc.,  afford  training  in  observation.  Re- 


SUBJECT-MATTER  71 

ports  on  synonyms  are  profitable,  as  are 
paraphrases  and  talks  based  on  the  classics 
studied.  Anything  and  everything  that 
comes  to  hand  is  available  material  for 
"  one^minute  talks." 

Vocational  themes  offer  incentive  for 
the  best  sort  of  work.  In  the  first  place, 
pupils  know  what  they  are  talking  about; 
they  are  familiar  with  the  processes  or 
objects  from  actual  observation.  Next, 
they  feel  that  they  are  talking  of  some- 
thing that  might  be  of  actual  value  to 
them  in  later  life.  In  this  intensely  utili- 
tarian age  it  is  of  little  surprise  that  pupils 
would  follow  the  tendency  of  their  fathers. 
Subjects,  therefore,  taken  from  work  in 
manual  training  and  domestic  science  can 
be  used,  and  should  be  used  by  teachers 
extensively. 

The  school  paper  can  be  used  as  a  spur 
to  urge  from  the  students  their  best 
efforts.  Such  themes  will  be  concerned 
with  school  life,  with  student  affairs,  and 
with  student  conditions.  Is  it  any  wonder 
that  the  things  which  lie  nearest  to  the 
heart  of  the  student  body  will  be  best  per- 
formed— as  pleasures,  not  as  tasks? 


72  CHOICE  OF  A  SUBJECT 

It  is  the  near  and  the  familiar  that 
interest  the  boy  and  the  girl.  They  are 
passing  through  the  stage  when  things  of 
the  senses  make  greatest  appeal.  There- 
fore, in  choice  of  subject  let  us  see  to  it 
that  the  objective  is  presented,  not  the 
subjective.  English  composition  has  been 
held  back  for  years  by  the  grip  of  the 
literary  subject  demanded  by  the  college 
entrance  examinations.  The  time  has 
come,  however,  when  the  domination  of 
this  bookishness  has  been  thrown  off.  In 
oral  composition  especially  should  the 
ordinary  problems  of  life,  the  ordinary 
pleasures,  the  ordinary  events  be  given 
the  light  of  discussion. 

Every-day  English  deals  with  every- 
day subjects.  Help  the  boy  and  the  girl 
to  find  the  interesting  in  common  life  and 
you  make  them  more  interesting  in  their 
conversation.  That,  after  all  is  said,  is 
the  prime  object  of  oral  composition. 

SUMMARY 

Chapter  IV  gives  practical  suggestions 
as  to  length,  kind,  and  subject-matter  of 
talks.  It  shows  the  benefits  of  the  various 


SUMMARY  78 

kinds  of  talks.  It  encourages  correlation. 
It  insists  that  the  subjects  must  be  well- 
defined,  and  that  the  English  teacher  must 
stamp  out  faults  in  style  by  training  the 
thought.  Lack  of  clearness  in  style  is 
due  to  hazy  thinking.  The  teacher  must 
therefore  attack  causes  rather  than  re- 
sults. The  chapter  further  puts  into  the 
pupil's  hand  a  fine  scheme  of  self -improve- 
ment by  urging  the  keeping  of  a  journal. 
It  recommends  outlines,  summaries,  etc., 
as  a  means  of  clarifying,  organizing,  and 
briefly  expressing  ideas.  Best  of  all,  it 
helps  the  flabby-minded  to  form  opinions 
of  their  own — to  become  more  than  human 
oysters.  The  sample  lesson  shows  again 
the  teacher  drawing  material  from  the 
class. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  DEBATE  IN  ENGLISH  AND  HISTORY 

"  Tis,  too !  " 

"Tisn't!" 

'"Twasn't  so!" 

"  'Twas !  " 

"Twill   be!" 

"Twon't!  ...    And  I'U  prove  it!" 

SOMETHING  argumentative  is  born  in 
almost  every  human  being.  That  love  "  to 
argufy,"  to  reason  things  out,  ought  to  be 
used  in  the  classroom. 

A  good  debate  arouses  interest,  quickens 
thought,  and  clarifies  the  same  thought; 
it  quickens  and  improves  the  quality  of 
expression.  The  American  spirit  of  true 
sport — to  win  for  the  fun  of  the  thing- 
is  encouraged.  A  new  use  is  given  to 
classroom  suggestions:  that  is,  power  to 
convince  and  to  win  others  over  to  another 
view  of  the  subject. 


74 


PARAGRAPH  DEBATES  75 

WITH  YOUNG  STUDENTS — PARAGRAPH 
DEBATES 

It  is  by  no  means  necessary  to  hold 
argumentation  off  for  senior  year.  With 
young  students — the  first  year  in  high 
school,  for  instance — paragraph  state- 
ments of  reasons  should  receive  much 
attention.  Such  statements  come  up  con- 
stantly in  conversation  and  in  letters. 

A  paragraph  limit  means  one  phase  of 
the  topic ;  therefore,  unity  is  enforced.  Let 
the  proposition  be  stated  in  the  first  sen- 
tence and  be  developed  step  by  step  in  the 
following  statements.  Rhetorical  quali- 
ties can  be  applied  to  the  miniature  pro- 
duction as  well  as  to  the  long  debate. 

The  following  list  offers  available 
topics  for  debate  or  criticism: 

1.  Inventors   are   more   useful   to    a   com- 
munity than  writers. 

2.  Ought  a  boy  go  into  debt  for  a  college 
education  ? 

3.  Study  of  a  modern  language  is  prefer- 
able to  study  of  Latin  or  Greek. 

4.  A  knowledge  of  French  is  of  more  use 
than  a  knowledge  of  German. 


76    ENGLISH  AND  HISTORY  DEBATE 

5.  Most  young  people  should  not  read  the 
newspapers. 

6.  Winter  is  preferable  to  summer. 

7.  Composition  is  more  valuable  to  a  stu- 
dent than  arithmetic  or  science. 

8.  Interclass  contests  should  take  the  place 
of  interscholastic  contests. 

9.  The  country  boy  has  greater  advantages 
than  the  city  boy. 

10.  Libraries   and   art   galleries   should  be 
open  on  Sundays. 

11.  A  year  of  travel  abroad  is  equal  to  a 
year  of  college. 

12.  The     honor     system    in     examinations 
should  be  adopted. 

13.  Which  should  this  city  have — a  public 
library  or  a  public  park? 

14.  It  is  advisable  for  two  students  to  study 
together. 

15.  Secret    societies    in    high    schools    are 
desirable. 

16.  Canoeing  is  more  enjoyable  than  sailing. 

17.  Golf  is  preferable  to  tennis. 

18.  Every    school    should   have    a    literary 
society. 

19.  Argumentation  is  of  more  practical  value 
than  exposition. 


PARAGRAPH  DEBATES  77 

20.  For  the  boy  who  does  not  go  to  college, 
the   commercial   course   is   preferable   to   the 
college  preparatory. 

21.  Football  is  preferable  to  baseball. 

22.  Term  examinations  should  be  abolished. 

23.  Faculty  supervision  of  the  school  paper 
is  desirable. 

24.  Two   sessions   in   the   high   school   are 
better  than  one. 

25.  Should  a  good  student  be  excused  from 
examinations  ? 

26.  Faculty     supervision     of     athletics     is 
desirable. 

27.  The  elective  system  should  be  used  more 
extensively  in  high  schools. 

28.  The   school   letter   should   be    awarded 
for  good  scholarship  as  well  as  for  proficiency 
in  athletics. 

29.  Students  should  report  cheating. 

30.  A    vacation    should    have    a    profitable 
interest. 

31.  Student  government  is  desirable. 

32.  Drawing  is  of  more  use  than  music. 

S3.  Every  school  should  have  an  orchestra. 

34.  Vocal  and  instrumental  music  should  be 
taught  in  the  public  schools. 

35.  Betting  is  wrong. 


78    ENGLISH  AND  HISTORY  DEBATE 

36.  Military  tactics  should  be  taught  in  high 
schools. 

37.  Roadside     advertisements     should     be 
prohibited. 

38.  College  entrance  examinations  should  be 
abandoned  for  a  system  of  certification  from 
the  preparatory  schools. 

39.  "Uncle  Tom's   Cabin"   should  be  ex- 
cluded from  the  school  library. 

40.  A  sane  Fourth  of   July,  without  fire- 
works, is  desirable. 

41.  The  airship  as  a  passenger  craft  is  a 
possibility. 

42.  High   school   students   should   be   for- 
bidden to  smoke. 

43.  An  orator  in  a  city  has  more  influence 
than  a  journalist 

44.  Good  roads  were  the  first  need  of  the 
pioneer. 

45.  Nature    has    exerted   the    greatest    in- 
fluence in  the  location  of  cities. 

46.  A  college  education  pays. 

47.  Training  in  citizenship  should  be  given 
in  the  public  schools. 

48.  Does  prohibition  reduce  crime? 

4Q.  The    microscope    has    done    more    for 
science  than  the  telescope. 


HOW  TO  PROCEED  79 

50.  A  liberal  education  should  precede  the 
professional. 

5 1 .  Should  a  novel  teach  something  ? 

52.  State  supervision  of  private  schools  is 
desirable. 

HOW  TO  PROCEED 

Divide  the  class  according  to  sides.  It 
pays  to  seat  them  separately,  if  you  can 
manage  it  quietly.  Appoint  a  speaker  for 
the  period  to  serve  as  chairman,  and  let 
him  call  for  talks  from  one  side  and  then 
from  the  other. 

It  is  well  to  give  a  short  talk  on  how 
to  judge  the  debates. 

"  Divide  a  sheet  of  theme  paper  into 
five  columns.  Over  the  first  print 
speaker,  then  over  the  others  in  succession 
voice,  delivery,  style,  ideas.  As  each  stu- 
dent talks,  insert  under  the  respective 
columns,  P,  F,  or  G,  which  stand  for  Poor, 
Fair,  and  Good.  In  awarding  decisions, 
then,  we  will  count  ideas  60  per  cent., 
style  20  per  cent.,  delivery  10  per  cent., 
and  voice  10  per  cent.  Add  up  and  you 
get  100  per  cent.  Any  other  scheme  of 
percentages  would  do.  We  shall  see  who 
come  out  best  all  around.  It  will  be  lots 
of  fun!" 


80    ENGLISH  AND  HISTORY  DEBATE 

Then  follow  rapid-fire  the  affirmative 
and  negative  reasons,  given  with  much 
zeal.  Let  me  insert  a  sample  page  of 
criticism  taken  at  random. 


Speaker 

Smythe   . . . 


Voice  10 
Per 
cent. 

Delivery  10 
Per 
cent. 

Style  20 
Per 
cent. 

Ideas  60 
Per 

cent. 

F     5 

P     2 

F  10 

G  60 

G  10 

G  10 

P     4 

F  30 

P     2 

P     2 

P     4 

F  30 

F     5 

F     5 

G  20 

G  60 

F     5 

G  10 

G  20 

G  60 

Wentz    J 

Henty    

Fail-child 

It  is  an  easy  matter  to  add  per  cents  and 
find  that  Fairchild  leads  with  95  per  cent., 
Henty  follows  with  90  per  cent.,  and  then 
come  Smythe  with  77  per  cent.,  Atkins 
with  54  per  cent.,  and  Wentz  with  38  per 
cent.  It  is  a  good  way  to  make  students 
appreciate  all  that  goes  to  make  the  good 
debater.  For  Good  we  usually  took  full 
per  cent.,  for  Fair  one  half,  and  for  Poor 
one-fifth. 

PARAGRAPH  DEBATES  IN  HISTORY 

Paragraph  debates  are  very  practicable 
in  history,  where  a  wealth  of  material  sug- 
gests for  review  such  subjects;  as, 


DEBATES  IN  HISTORY  81 

1.  Aristides  was  a  greater  statesman  than 
Themistocles. 

2.  Homer   has   done   more   to   perpetuate 
Greek  ideals  than  Miltiades. 

S.  The  training  at  Athens  was  better  than 
the  training  at  Sparta. 

4.  Greek  history  is  more  enjoyable  than 
Roman  history. 

5.  Alexander's  expedition  was  more  of  a 
feat  than  Hannibal's. 

6.  Greece    has  contributed  more    to    the 
modern  world  than  Rome. 

7.  Would    you   have   joined    forces    with 
Caesar  or  Pompey? 

8.  Ought  Brutus  to  have  followed  the  ad- 
vise of  Cassius  ? 

9.  Nero  was  guilty  of  burning  Rome. 

10.  Was  Antony  wiser  than  Brutus? 

11.  The   faults   of   Coriolanus   outweighed 
his  virtues. 

12.  Was  the  assassination  of  Caesar  justifi- 
able? 

13.  Hannibal  was   as    great   a   general   as 
Caesar. 

14.  Was  Augustus  a  greater  emperor  than 
Trajan? 

6 


82    ENGLISH  AND  HISTORY  DEBATE 

15.  Was  the  establishment  of  the  empire 
wise? 

16.  The  plebeian  secession  was  justifiable. 

17.  The  Roman  matron  played  a  more  im- 
portant part  in  history  than  the  Greek  woman. 

18.  The    American    Indian    was    unjustly 
treated. 

19.  The  primary  object  of  the  Civil  War 
was  to  free  the  slaves. 

20.  The  purchase  of  the  Philippines  was  a 
political  mistake. 

21.  The  Spanish- American  war  should  have 
been  prevented. 

22.  Has  war  been  the  greatest  civilizer  ? 

23.  Arbitration  between  nations  is  desirable. 
(The  above  topics  are  good  material  for  criticism.) 

Debate  offers  an  excellent  scheme  for 
review,  because  it  hits  several  birds  with 
one  stone.  It  rearranges  facts ;  it  develops 
expression;  it  forces  a  preference,  an 
opinion;  it  intensely  interests. 

DECIDING  PARAGRAPH  DEBATES 

The  wise  teacher  will  often  outline  on 
the  blackboard  in  parallel  columns  the  pro 
and  con  arguments,  as  given.  This  shows 
students  how  to  balance  and  weigh  the 


DECIDING  PARAGRAPH  DEBATES   83 

statements,  throw  out  the  worthless,  and 
by  cancelling  those  that  remain  reach  a 
fair  conclusion. 

The  young  mind  is  prone  to  stick  dog- 
matically to  its  own  idea.  It  must  be 
taught  to  modify,  to  yield,  to  accept  a 
better  opinion.  The  young  student  is 
apt  to  associate  arguments  with  the  per- 
sonality of  the  one  who  makes  them.  He 
will  vote  for  John's  debate,  because 
"  John's  a  good  fellow !  "  Facts  must  be 
stripped  of  all  personality. 

The  following  parallel  outlines  are 
taken  from  a  debate  on  '  Which  is  more 
desirable  for  a  place  of  residence,  the  City 
or  the  Country? " 

The  City  The  Country 

fModern  f  Natural  scenery 

(^conveniences  \Beauty 

("Theatres  fPure  air 

( Amusements  (JHealth 

f  Best  schools  f  Pure,  cheap 

(Education  (food 

( Churches  J  Outdoor  employment 

(Religion  (Health 

f  Musical  f  Animal 

(^advantages  1  life 


84    ENGLISH  AND  HISTORY  DEBATE 

PARAGRAPH  DEBATES  IN  LITERARY  SOCIETY 

It  is  a  practical  plan  to  break  in  new 
material — a  young  student — by  placing 
him  on  the  debate  question,  not  as  leader, 
but  under  the  heading  of  General  De- 
bate, to  be  limited  to  one  point  of  view 
and  to  one  minute.  This  familiarizes  the 
beginner  with  debating  methods  and 
lessens  his  fear  of  the  platform.  His  work 
on  the  paragraph  unit  prepares  him  to 
tackle  a  longer  assignment  of  units, — 
which  is  the  regular  debate. 

It  is  well  to  insist  that  a  paragraph 
debate  be  as  carefully  outlined  as  the 
longer  brief.  For  the  beginner  it  is  just 
as  big  an  undertaking.  It  should  also  be 
written  up  and  memorized  before  pre- 
sentation in  society,  as  that  enables  him  to 
concentrate,  while  on  the  platform,  on 
voice,  delivery,  and  gesture.  As  soon  as 
possible  dispense  with  the  writing  up  and 
memorizing,  so  that  there  is  more  spon- 
taneity. The  general  debaters  can  confer, 
and  choose  topics  for  argument.  This 
prevents  encroaching  upon  each  other's 
territory.  Let  there  be  two  decisions,  one 
for  the  chief  debaters  and  the  other  for 


PARAGRAPHS  OF  REFUTATION      85 

the  general  debaters.     These  will  some- 
times be  different. 

PARAGRAPHS  OF  REFUTATION 

To  shatter  an  opponent's  argument 
strengthens  the  student's  own  debate.  A 
profitable  exercise  can  be  introduced  to 
show  the  value  of  such  refutation.  Direct 
students  to  outline  points  on  both  affirma- 
tive and  negative  sides  of  the  question, 
then  to  break  down  as  much  as  possible 
the  points  on  both  sides,  by  stating  ob- 
jections, impossibilities,  impracticality,  or 
whatever  lessens  the  weight  of  the  original 
argument.  The  value  of  statistics  and 
quotations  from  authorities  can  be  dis- 
cussed. In  dealing  with  paragraphs  of 
refutation  it  is  easy  to  arouse  interest  in 
kinds  of  argument,  in  such  terms  as  in- 
ductive, deductive,  analogy,  circum- 
stantial evidence,  precedent,  sign,  hear- 
say, direct  reasoning,  indirect  reasoning. 
Above  all,  do  not  confuse  by  introducing 
such  terms  until  the  class  is  ripe  for  them. 
Let  it,  if  possible,  gradually  lead  up  to 
the  terms. 


86    ENGLISH  AND  HISTORY  DEBATE 

HOW  TO  PREPARE  A  LONG  DEBATE 

"  I'm  on  for  a  debate.  How  shall  I  go 
about  it?" 

This  is  a  sensible  question  from  the 
student  who  finds  himself  on  the  pro- 
gram of  the  literary  society  for  the  big 
debate.  Practical  suggestions  should  be 
given  to  the  classes  and  to  the  literary 
society. 

"  In  the  first  place,  the  question  must  be 
stated  in  proper  form, — as  a  resolution,  a 
declarative  sentence,  or  a  question.  The 
subject  should  present  two  sides,  and  the 
terms  should  be  clearly  understood  by 
both  debaters,  to  avoid  unnecessary 
quibbling." 

"  Last  week,"  breaks  in  John,  "  they 
were  arguing  different  questions.  That's 
what  I  told  Andrews!  " 

1  The  material  should  be  gathered  to- 
gether and  thought  out.  If  notes  are 
taken,  it  is  wise  to  observe  authorities 
carefully.  Don't  plagiarize.  Public 
libraries  have  so  many  college  briefs  on 
hand,  that  it  is  a  simple  matter  to  get  such 
material,  if  the  student  is  foolish  enough 
to  cheat  himself. 


HOW  TO  PREPARE  A  LONG  DEBATE  87 

*  The  brief  differs  from  an  ordinary 
outline  in  having  complete  sentences.  In 
the  introduction,  state  the  proposition  and 
explain  what  is  to  be  proved.  Then  tell 
your  method  of  procedure, — just  exactly 
what  you  undertake  to  prove.  In  the 
short-story  or  the  essay  we  conceal  our 
outline  structure,  but  in  the  debate  we  do 
just  the  opposite.  You  can  readily  see 
that  the  audience  can  follow  your  argu- 
ments more  satisfactorily  if  you  take  them 
into  your  confidence  and  tell  them  before- 
hand the  main  points  of  your  discussion. 
These  are  called  main  issues.  Divide  your 
discussion  into  several  main  points  or 
phases  of  the  subject,  the  fewer  the  better. 
Let  the  audience  know  from  the  beginning 
exactly  what  they  are.  In  every  para- 
graph put  your  topical  matter  first. 

"  It  is  easier  to  listen,"  admits  one  of 
the  girls,  "  if  you  know  what  the  speaker 
is  driving  at.  It's  very  tiresome  when 
points  don't  get  anywhere." 

"  Indeed  it  is !  Eliminate  from  the 
brief  all  material  not  strictly  on  the  sub- 
ject,— that  gives  a  unified  impression. 
Arrange  your  sub-points  in  a  cumulative 


88    ENGLISH  AND  HISTORY  DEBATE 

order,  remembering,  however,  to  start 
with  something  important.  The  emphatic 
positions,  as  you  know,  are  the  beginning 
and  the  end, — to  catch  interest  and  to 
leave  the  impression.  Your  arguments 
should  resemble  the  links  of  a  chain,  fitting 
together  but  not  of  same  size.  To 
strengthen  coherence,  such  phrases  as,  in 
the  first  place,  next  we  say,  then,  too,  and 
lastly,  act  as  tiny  links  binding  the  big 
ones  together.  Look  at  Burke's  famous 
speech  and  see  these  things  for  yourselves. 

"  The  refutation  is  usually  placed  before 
the  last  point  of  the  discussion;  sometimes, 
however,  it  is  better  to  introduce  such  ma- 
terial whenever  the  objection  might  come 
up  in  the  minds  of  the  hearers.  The  con- 
clusion drives  home  an  appeal  for  the 
arguments  made  in  the  discussion.  It  is 
the  peroration.  It  is  usually  well  to  give 
a  resum6  of  the  main  arguments." 

"  I've  noticed  those  summaries  at  the 
end,"  volunteers  John.  "  I  should  think 
they  would  help  the  judges,  too." 

"  Read  Mark  Antony's  address  over 
the  dead  body  of  Csesar  and  see  how  he 


HOW  TO  PREPARE  A  LONG  DEBATE  89 

gives  his  reasons  very  quickly,  then 
plunges  into  the  appeal, — to  the  pity,  the 
curiosity,  the  gratitude,  and  finally  the 
vengeance  of  the  mob."  The  class  has 
been  studying  "  Julius  Csesar,"  and  there- 
fore sees  the  full  force. 

Some  one  asks  about  style. 

"The  style  of  the  debate  can  be 
strengthened  by  introducing  interroga- 
tory, exclamatory,  and  imperative  sen- 
tences ;  by  using  periodic  sentences  for  sus- 
pense, and  balanced  sentences  for  antith- 
esis. Well-drawn  figures  add  vividness 
and  force.  Specific  examples  and  illustra- 
tive matter  are  invaluable,  for  they  give 
concreteness.  Rhetorical  repetition  gives 
emphasis." 

"  We  saw  all  those  things  in  Lincoln's 
Gettysburg  speech,"  says  John.  "  Now 
we  are  to  use  them  ourselves.  I  see! " 

And  he  did  seem  to  see,  for  he  turned 
out  a  good  debate. 

"  One  thing  more,"  we  conclude,  "  read 
it  aloud  when  you  are  through.  That  is 
the  best  test  of  the  oration  or  the  debate. 
And  revise  thoroughly! " 


90   ENGLISH  AND  HISTORY  DEBATE 

PROCEDURE  IN  FORMAL  DEBATE 

It  is  customary  to  observe  parliamen- 
tary rules  in  formal  debate.  The  presid- 
ing officer  is  addressed  as  "  Mr.  Chair- 
man," the  three  judges  as  "  Honorable 
Judges " ;  each  debater  speaks  of  his 
assistant  as  "  My  Colleague,"  and  of  the 
opposing  speakers  as  "  Opponents." 

The  first  speaker  of  the  affirmative 
opens  the  debate  by  stating  the  question 
and  defining  it  carefully.  Then  he  gives 
his  points  of  direct  argument.  The  first 
opposing  speaker  takes  up  the  direct  argu- 
ments for  the  negative.  The  second 
affirmative  speaker  usually  devotes  him- 
self to  indirect  argument,  that  is,  to  ref- 
utation of  the  strong  points  of  the  nega- 
tive as  he  saw  them  in  preparing  his  de- 
bate. Then  he  may  conclude  with  a  sum- 
mary of  the  full  argument  of  his  side. 
The  second  negative  speaker  gives  a  ref- 
utation of  the  affirmative  arguments  and 
closes  the  debate,  leaving  it  in  the  hands 
of  the  judges. 

A  caution  to  students  is  wise.  Urge 
them  to  be  honest  with  themselves  in  mak- 
ing statements;  to  play  fair;  to  be  accu- 


KINDS  OF  ARGUMENT  91 

rate ;  to  avoid  hasty  generalization,  to  re- 
member that  mere  statement  does  not 
make  fact;  to  avoid  objectionable  contro- 
versy; and  to  bear  in  mind  that  their 
humble  opinion,  their  plea  or  exhortation 
is  not  argument.  Courtesy  should  be  a 
part  of  the  whole  proceeding :  no  personal 
feeling,  held;  no  derogatory  remarks, 
passed.  If  rebuttal  is  given,  great  care 
should  be  exercised  to  give  only  accurate 
statements.  A  good  rebuttal  is  a  tonic,  in 
that  it  forces  rapid  thinking. 

KINDS  OF  ARGUMENT 

We  are  discussing  arguments  in- 
formally in  class. 

"  All  argument  does  one  of  two  things : 
it  proves  either  the  truth  of  a  theory  or 
the  occurrence  of  a  fact.  And  it  does  this 
in  two  ways:  inductively  and  deduc- 
tively." 

"  I  always  wondered  exactly  what  those 
words  meant!"  says  a  thoughtful  girl. 
"  We  use  lots  of  words,  don't  we,  that  we 
do  not  exactly  understand  1 " 

"Unfortunately,  yes!"  we  answer. 
"  Inductive  reasoning  gathers  together  a 


92   ENGLISH  AND  HISTORY  DEBATE 

great  number  of  cases  or  examples  and 
makes  a  generalization  from  them;  deduc- 
tive reasoning,  on  the  other  hand,  makes 
a  general  statement  and  then  seeks  to 
prove  it  by  examples.  Induction  is  the 
scientific  laboratory  method — we  can 
thank  Lord  Bacon  for  it " 

"  It 's  what  we  use  in  chemistry,"  cor- 
roborates a  boy. 

" — Deduction  starts  as  a  basis  with 
principles  and  theories,  believed  by  the 
audience.  These  might  be  in  the  form  of 
maxims  and  proverbs,  for  they  are  the 
consensus  of  opinion  of  the  many  or 
opinions  of  authorities. 

"  In  proving  the  truth  of  a  theory  what 
questions  would  you  ask  of  it? " 

"  Is  it  practical?  "  answers  one. 

"  Is  it  useful? "  volunteers  another. 

"  Why  not— is  it  right?  "  asks  a  third. 

"  Sometimes  a  thing  might  be  theoreti- 
cally right  but  not  wise  to  adopt  at  the 
time,"  suggests  the  first  speaker.  "  Burke 
spoke  of  conciliation  as  being  expedient." 

*  You  all  are  right,"  we  answer.  *  Too 
hasty  a  conclusion  from  too  few  or  faulty 
examples  is  the  chief  error  into  which  the 


KINDS  OF  ARGUMENTS  93 

inductive  reasoner  falls.  Analogy  has  a 
legitimate  use, — to  cite  cases  that  are 
similar.  In  persuading  to  action  this  hold- 
ing up  of  examples  exerts  a  powerful  in- 
fluence, if  well  done." 

"  Orators  on  special  occasions  do  a  lot 
of  that,"  remarks  John,  "  and  so  do 
ministers." 

"  In  deductive  reasoning,  as  we  said  be- 
fore, we  start  with  a  general  principle. 
The  reasoning  is  in  the  form  of  a  syllo- 
gism (write  it  on  the  blackboard),  which 
in  shortened  form  is  called  the  enthymeme. 
Now  a  syllogism  consists  of  two  premises, 
called  the  major  and  minor  premises,  and 
a  conclusion.  Here  is  the  threadbare 
example  they  give  in  old  logic  books: 

"Major  premise:  All  men  are  mortal. 
Minor  premise:  John  is  a  man. 
Conclusion:  Therefore,  John  is  mortal.' 

"  Notice  that  the  major  premise  gives 
a  general  statement,  which  everybody 
grants,  the  all  making  it  universal.  The 
minor  premise  is  a  specific  example  in- 
cluded in  the  term  all  men,  as  one  of  the 
all.  The  conclusion  is  inevitable." 


94    ENGLISH  AND  HISTORY  DEBATE 

c  Why,  it's  just  like  a  mathematical 
axiom,"  blurts  out  a  brilliant  geometry 
student.  "  What  is  true  of  the  whole  is 
true  of  the  parts." 

"  I  suppose,"  says  another  slowly,  "  that 
the  major  premise  must  include  all " 

"  — And  the  premises  have  to  be  true," 
breaks  in  another  voice.  "  Do  they  not?  " 

*  Yes ;  and  the  terms  must  be  used  with 
the  same  meaning  throughout  or  fallacies 
creep  in.  Sometimes  it  is  very  hard  to 
pick  out  fallacies,  but  it  is  much  fun  if 
you  become  shrewd  at  it! " 

A  MOCK  TRIAL 

The  "  mock  trial  "  is  an  excellent  means 
of  familiarizing  students  with  evidence. 
Let  the  class  or  society  issue  a  call  for  a 
volunteer  to  serve  as  culprit ;  then  appoint 
the  judge,  two  lawyers  each  for  the  prose- 
cution and  the  defense,  and  make  up  a 
good  story  for  each  side.  The  first  lawyer 
attends  to  the  speeches;  the  second  exam- 
ines witnesses,  who  in  the  meantime  are 
instructed  in  their  parts.  At  the  meet- 
ing impanel  a  jury  quickly,  then  examine 


A  MOCK  TRIAL  95 

the  witnesses,  break  down  testimony,  give 
the  lawyers'  speeches,  the  judge's  charge, 
etc.  Much  fun  can  be  had  from  such  a 
"  mock  trial." 

"  To  prove  the  occurrence  of  a  fact," 
we  explain,  "  we  seek  for  evidence,  which 
may  be  direct  or  indirect.  Experience, 
testimony  of  witnesses,  their  observation 
and  veracity  well-tested,  opinions  of  ex- 
perts, as  the  alienist  called  in  for  the 
murder  trial " 

"  Or  a  hand- writ  ing  expert  in  a  forgery 
case,"  offers  Tom. 

" — And  a  combination  of  circumstances 
— these  form  the  evidence.  A  lawyer  has 
a  big  job:  he  must  first  prove  that  a  thing 
is  possible — " 

"  That  is  why  an  alibi  establishes  a 
man's  innocence? "  asks  a  girl  in  the  rear. 

"  If  well-proved,  yes ;  next,  he  must 
prove  it  probable — " 

"  And  that's  why  they  always  look  for 
a  motive! "  Tom  forestalls  a  reply  with 
such  enthusiasm  that  we  do  not  reprove 
the  interruption. 

"Yes,"  we  say,  "that's  why!     Then 


96    ENGLISH  AND  HISTORY  DEBATE 

lastly  he  must  prove  that  it  actually 
happened.  There  they  gather  all  sorts  of 
circumstantial  evidence,  signs.  Elimina- 
tion plays  a  part,  too,  as  it  narrows  down." 

A  LONG  DEBATE  IN  RET  AY 

It  is  a  good  way  to  work  out  a  lengthy 
brief  by  having  each  student  do  a  share, 
not  only  in  outlining  the  points,  but  in 
giving  them  in  front  of  the  class.  Let  the 
class  decide  on  the  subject,  plan  the  main 
points  in  the  treatment,  then  work  up  the 
topics  independently.  Seated  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  room,  the  speakers  can  follow 
one  after  the  other,  so  that  those  who  listen 
will  get  a  coherent  idea  of  the  whole  and 
can  compare  the  work  of  the  various 
debaters. 

Political  questions  are  not  good  sub- 
jects for  general  class  use,  because  many 
students  are  not  informed  and  the  discus- 
sion tends  to  become  partisan.  Subjects 
should  be  such  that  the  common  sense  of 
the  boy  can  deal  with  them.  His  own 
brain  can  furnish  reasons. 

A  debate  in  relay  can  be  managed  in  a 


SUBJECTS  FOR  LONG  DEBATES     97 

period,  with  the  talks  given  from  the  front 
of  the  room,  and  student- judges  ap- 
pointed to  draw  conclusions.  Or,  if  de- 
sired, a  vote  of  the  listeners  can  be  taken. 

SUBJECTS  FOR  LONG  DEBATES 

1.  Grade  crossings  should  be  prohibited. 

2.  Fortune-telling  should  be  forbidden. 

3.  The  municipal  government  should  sup- 
ply work  to  the  unemployed. 

4.  A  large  navy  is  necessary  to  the  wel- 
fare of  the  nation. 

5.  Moving   picture   shows   do   more   harm 
than  good. 

6.  Strikes  are  justifiable. 

7.  The  acquisition  of  Cuba  by  the  United 
States  is  unwise. 

8.  The  treatment  of  Shylock  was  unjust. 

9.  Sunday  baseball  should  be  prohibited. 

10.  Absolute     freedom    of    the     press     is 
desirable. 

11.  The  United  States  should  intervene  in 
behalf  of  the  Jews  in  Russia. 

12.  Trade  schools  should  be  established  in 
cities. 

7 


98    ENGLISH  AND  HISTORY  DEBATE 

IS.  Reading  of  late  popular  fiction  is   as 
desirable  as  reading  of  the  standard  novels. 
'  14.  Spelling  reform  should  be  encouraged. 

15.  Capital  punishment  should  be  abolished. 

16.  Saloon  licenses  should  be  restricted. 

17.  The  Audubon  Society  work  should  be 
encouraged. 

18.  Hypnotic  entertainments  should  be  fop- 
bidden. 

19.  Vivisection  is  justifiable. 

20.  Police  officers  should  be  controlled  by 
the  state. 

21.  Labor-saving  machinery  has   improved 
the  cause  of  labor. 

22.  The    ethical    influence    of    poetry    is 
greater  than  that  of  prose. 

23.  The  small  college  is  preferable  to  the 
large  one. 

24.  Gymnasium    work    in    public    schools 
should  be  made  compulsory. 

25.  Women  should  have  the  right  to  vote. 

26.  Food  adulterations  should  be  prohibited. 

27.  Immigration     to     the     United     States 
should  be  further  restricted. 

28.  There   should   be   a  restriction  of  the 
height  of  buildings. 


SUBJECTS  FOR  LONG  DEBATES     99 

2Q.  The  government  should  control  railways. 

30.  Lady  Macbeth  is  responsible  for  Mac- 
beth's  downfall. 

31.  The  evils  of  card-playing  outweigh  the 
advantages. 

32.  Charitable  organizations  are  better  than 
private  benevolence. 

33.  Letter  postage  should  be  reduced  to  one 
cent. 

34.  Pauperism  is  a  crime. 

35.  Irrigation  should  be  carried  on  at  the 
expense  of  the  government. 

36.  Electricity  will  supplant  steam  as  motor- 
power. 

37.  Inherited  wealth  does  more  harm  than 
good. 

38.  The   office   of  poet-laureate   should   be 
abolished. 

39.  The  initiative,   referendum,  and  recall 
should  be  introduced  into  municipal  govern- 
ment. 

40.  Prize-fights  should  be  forbidden. 

41.  It  is  better  for  a  boy  to  learn  a  trade 
than  a  profession. 

42.  Hamlet  was  really  insane. 

43.  The   novel   has   exerted    a    greater   in- 
fluence than  the  drama. 


100  ENGLISH  AND  HISTORY  DEBATE 

SUMMARY 

Chapter  V  explains  carefully  how  to 
make  use  of  the  debate  in  short,  as  well  as 
in  long  form.  It  shows  how  development 
of  the  reasoning  powers  will  prepare  boys 
and  girls  to  cope  with  the  problems  of  life, 
where  there  is  conflict  of  ideas  or  of  lines 
of  action.  Gullibility  is  characteristic  of 
the  masses.  This  chapter  shows  how  the 
debate,  if  used  systematically,  can  be 
effective  in  training  pupils  not  to  swallow 
statements  whole,  not  to  accept  without 
question  whatever  newspapers  and  maga- 
zines print,  not  to  confuse  belief  with  con- 
viction, not  to  make  wild  guesses,  not  to 
exaggerate,  not  to  decide  by  personal  con- 
siderations instead  of  reasoning,  not  to  be 
tools  for  others,  instead  of  independent 
thinkers,  not  to  see  only  one  side  of  the 
question.  These  faults  can  be  cured  by 
using  systematically  the  debate  form 
in  oral  composition.  The  chapter  shows  a 
legitimate  use  of  the  love  to  combat,  to 
convince,  inherent  in  people;  it  presents 
the  common  sense  method  of  gathering, 
sifting,  and  arranging  material.  It  trains 
the  critical  judgment  by  presenting  a 


SUMMARY*  :-  I]     .,  .  .101 

scheme  for  deciding  debates.  It  teaches 
students  to  balance  by  parallel  outlines. 
A  sample  lesson  acquaints  the  students 
"with  terms  in  argumentation,  often  diffi- 
cult for  young  teachers  to  teach.  It  shows 
a  number  of  ways  of  using  paragraph 
debates  and  furnishes  subjects  in  both 
English  and  history.  It  emphasizes  the 
need  of  debating  in  the  Literary  Society,, 
giving  the  formal  procedure  for  the  long 
debate.  It  introduces  innovations  for 
classroom  use,  in  Debates  in  Relay  and 
Paragraphs  of  Refutation.  It  urges  the 
development  of  the  spirit  of  true  sport — 
to  win  for  the  sake  of  the  cause.  It  fur- 
nishes a  valuable  motive  for  greater  effort 
in  English  work;  that  is,  the  power  to 
convince. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  USE  OF  THE  SYMPOSIUM  IN 
ENGLISH  CLASSES 

IN  ancient  Greece  the  symposium  was 
a  conversational  banquet  or  feast,  where 
wit  and  wine  flowed  harmoniously.  One 
can  imagine  Pericles,  with  Aspasia  the 
brilliant  by  his  side,  presiding  over  the 
talent  of  Athens.  Glowing  conversations, 
such  as  Walter  Savage  Landor  in  his  love 
of  Greek  culture  divined,  would  strike  the 
spark  of  response;  the  fire  of  opinion 
would  be  tossed  from  one  to  another,  all 
taking  part.  Greek  letter  fraternities 
apply  the  term  to  their  banquets,  at  which 
each  man  contributes  his  share  to  the 
evening's  enjoyment. 

Students  are  attracted  by  something 
out  of  the  ordinary.  An  enjoyable 
method  of  getting  results  has  a  strong 
appeal.  Why  not  let  the  class  hold  a 
symposium?  In  the  period  allow  a  chair- 
man to  preside,  if  you  have  used  the  club 
102 


SYMPOSIUM  IN  ENGLISH  CLASSES  103 

method;  if  not,  let  the  teacher  preside  as 
Toastmaster  of  the  Banquet  of  Ideas. 

Preparation  for  such  a  symposium  is 
a  pleasure.  Let  the  talks  be  voluntary  as 
long  as  possible.  Drop  the  regular  lesson 
for  that  period.  It  requires  system  and 
quickness  of  management  to  crowd  the 
program  into  one  period,  but  it  can  be 
done  easily  in  forty  minutes.  We  have 
managed  it  in  thirty,  moving  like  clock- 
work. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  speak  of  the 
popularity  of  the  idea.  In  our  classes 
we  announced  the  question  some  days 
ahead;  on  the  day  assigned,  each  member 
of  the  class  voiced  an  opinion,  backing  it 
up  with  reasons.  For  a  week  before,  inter- 
est is  aroused  in  the  school,  because  Sec- 
tion B  or  Class  A  has  a  habit  of  talking 
about  things  that  reach  their  sympathies. 
The  symposium  is  an  excellent  promoter 
of  interest  in  classroom  work.  Try  it  and 
see  for  yourself. 

A   SYMPOSIUM   IN   ENGLISH   CLASSES 

To  oral  composition  the  symposium 
lends  itself  peculiarly  well.  If  the  class  is 


104         SYMPOSIUM  IN  ENGLISH 

not  too  large,  five  minutes  can  be  saved 
at  the  end  of  the  period  for  second 
speeches  to  clear  up  ideas,  strengthen 
opinions,  or  refute  statements. 

On  the  blackboard  tabulate  in  some 
form  the  opinions  given;  in  the  last  five 
minutes  add  up  and  announce  results. 
That  procedure,  small  as  it  may  seem, 
introduces  a  profitable  element — the  de- 
sire to  win.  At  other  times  five  minutes 
can  be  taken  at  the  end  of  the  period  to 
cast  a  vote. 

Suppose  the  class  has  been  discussing 
"  The  Quality  I  Admire  Most  in  a  Boy." 
The  names  of  qualities,  as  they  are  men- 
tioned, are  put  on  the  board,  like  so  many 
applicants  bidding  for  notice.  The  stu- 
dent votes  for  the  one  he  thinks  has  been 
most  ably  championed.  You  will  find  that 
usually  he  does  not  stick  narrowly  to  his 
own  choice.  Three  or  four  other  boys  may 
have  advocated  another  in  a  more  forceful 
way.  This  introduces  another  splendid 
element — the  desire  to  convince  others — 
to  win  them  over  to  cast  a  vote,  not  for 
him  but  for  the  view  he  espouses. 


A  SAMPLE  LESSON  105 

A  SAMPLE  LESSON 

"  On  Friday,  class,  we  shall  have  a 
symposium  on  '  The  National  Flower! ' 
is  the  announcement  at  the  beginning  of 
the  week.  "  Talk  about  it  at  home.  Think 
of  several  flowers  that  would  be  suitable 
as  a  flower  for  our  country,  then  plan  out 
your  reasons  for  suggesting  a  certain  one. 
Be  ready  to  express  yourself  clearly,  to 
the  point,  in  one  minute's  time.  Go  in  to 
win! 

"  We  shall  vote  at  the  end  of  the  period 
for  the  flower  we  think  has  been  best 
championed.  Here  is  a  chance  to  win  the 
entire  class  over  to  your  way  of  thinking!  " 

During  the  week  there  was  a  great  deal 
of  discussion.  In  the  corridors,  between 
classes,  even  sometimes  in  class,  there 
would  be  a  word  or  two.  Healthy  sign, 
that  discussion!  Reprove  them  for  it! 
No;  it  was  proof  that  their  minds  were 
working.  The  thing  to  do  in  class  was  to 
make  the  present  matter  so  vital  that 
Friday's  lesson  simply  could  not  intrude 
— which  we  proceeded  to  do. 

On  Friday  a  chairman  was  appointed; 
and  a  secretary,  to  write  names  of  the 


106         SYMPOSIUM  IN  ENGLISH 

flowers  on  the  board — with  a  stroke  after 
the  name  whenever  it  was  championed. 
These  flower-candidates  stood  as  follows: 

Lily    Ill 

Rose    Ill 

Carnation    IIII 

Goldenrod    IIII 

Violet    IIII 

Daisy    I 

Anemone    I 

Morning-glory I 

Ivy    I 

Edelweis    I 

Laurel    I 

In  that  proportion  had  they  been  cham- 
pioned by  the  speakers. 

One  after  the  other  the  speakers  came 
to  the  front  of  the  room  and  addressed 
their  classmates.  A  strict  time-limit  was 
kept  by  the  silent  partner  who  sat  in  the 
rear  of  the  room  and  took  notes  of  indi- 
vidual performances. 

He  of  the  laurel  was  a  Greek,  making 
an  eloquent  plea  for  the  mythological 
association  of  the  laurel  wreath  as  the 


A  SAMPLE  LESSON  107 

crown  of  genius.  This  was  backed  up  by 
a  description  of  the  beauty  of  native  laurel 
in  Pennsylvania.  The  speaker  also  sug- 
gested the  olive  branch  as  the  sign  of 
peace.  The  latter  suggestion  was  over- 
ruled by  a  student's  argument  that  the 
olive  is  not  native  American. 

He  of  the  edelweis  was  a  Swiss.  His 
eloquent  plea  for  the  hardy  little  plant 
that  clings  to  the  snow-line  was  defeated 
by  the  same  statement:  it  is  not  typically 
American. 

He  of  the  ivy  was  a  voracious  reader  of 
English  history  and  spoke  of  the  ivy-clad 
castles, — of  Abbotsf ord,  Kenilworth.  An- 
other student  later  objected  to  the  asso- 
ciation of  "  British  "  with  ivy. 

She  of  the  morning-glory  heralded  it  as 
the  common  flower  of  dawn,  which  climbs 
upward  as  our  nation  has  climbed,  re- 
flecting glorious  colors  of  arts  and  in- 
dustry. The  objection  was  made,  how- 
ever, that  it  is  too  fragile  and  short-lived. 

She  of  the  anemone  was  a  poetic  soul, 
who  loved  the  woods  and  made  a  modest 
plea  for  the  wild  flower,  urging  that  the 
class  be  not  caught  by  show  and  bigness. 


108          SYMPOSIUM  IN  ENGLISH 

Too  fragile,  was  the  comment  of  a  later 
speaker. 

He  of  the  daisy  was  a  country  boy,  who 
described  the  struggles  of  the  near-weed 
to  attain  its  hardy  growth.  It  was  the 
star  of  hope  that  our  nation  would  always 
lead. 

Those  of  the  lily  mentioned  its  inno- 
cence, its  purity,  its  color  the  white  of  the 
flag.  Innocence  does  not  represent  the 
country,  objected  some  one.  Another — 
it  is  too  expensive,  too  rare, — a  national 
flower  must  be  so  and  so.  Thus  he  and 
others  laid  down  inductively  the  qualifica- 
tions of  a  national  flower. 

They  of  the  rose  hailed  her  as  the  queen 
of  flowers,  as  we  are  queen  of  nations. 
Her  fragrance  was  the  worth  of  the 
country;  her  red,  courage;  her  white, 
purity !  Again  was  it  stated  that  the  very 
fact  of  her  being  queen  of  flowers  disquali- 
fied her.  She  is  too  expensive,  etc. 

Another  mentioned  the  choice  of  other 
nations, — the  thistle  of  Scotland,  the 
shamrock  of  Ireland,  the  lily  of  France, 
the  lotus  of  Egypt.  Why  not  the  carna- 
tion, he  argued.  'Twas  McKinley's 


A  SAMPLE  LESSON  109 

favorite  flower ;  was  cheap,  procurable  the 
year  round,  long-lived;  came  in  many 
colors,  and  offered  itself  well  for  decora- 
tive purposes. 

The  goldenrod  champion  came  out 
boldly  early  in  the  discussion.  So  com- 
mon a  wild  flower,  its  gold  the  wealth  of 
finance  and  of  brain, — the  richness  of  our 
nation!  What  plant  more  hardy!  more 
decorative ! 

She  of  the  modest  violet  was  joined  by 
three  others.  True  blue  and  odorous, 
wild  and  cultivated,  it  stood  for  all  our 
native  Americanism  refined  by  culture. 
'  Twas  easily  worn  and  procurable  all 
through  the  year. 

And  so  they  went. 

When  the  final  vote  was  taken,  it  was : 

Goldenrod 11111111111111111  (17) 

Carnation   1111    (4) 

Violet    Ill    (3) 

These  numbers  show  that  the  vote  was 
cast  upon  the  arguments  pro  and  con,  be- 
cause the  four  carnation  champions  stood 
pat,  one  violet  champion  came  over  to 
goldenrod,  and  the  four  original  cham- 
pions of  goldenrod  were  joined  by  the 


110          SYMPOSIUM  IN  ENGLISH 

upholders  of  the  lily,  rose,  daisy,  anemone, 
morning-glory,  ivy,  edelweis  and  laurel. 
It  was  a  wide-awake  lesson  in  uncon- 
scious speaking,  no  interruption  for  cor- 
rection,— in  reality  an  examination  in 
"  one-minute  talks."  The  assigned  work 
of  the  day  was  not  on  the  national  flower, 
but  on  something  else  that  could  be  joined 
with  Monday's  lesson.  Therefore,  no 
assigned  lesson  was  lost. 

SOME  SYMPOSIUM  SUBJECTS 

The  possibilities  of  the  symposium 
method  are  endless.  Let  me  add  a  few 
suggestive  subjects. 

1.  Short   Cuts   in   Doing   Things— in   the 
House,  the  Home,  the  Barn,  the  School. 

2.  Our  Greatest  American. 

3.  The  Most  Useful  Invention. 

4.  The  Book  I  Have  Enjoyed  Most. 

5.  The  Profession  I  Should  Like  to  Enter. 

6.  What  Makes  a  Good  School. 

7.  My  Favorite  Sport. 

8.  The  Author  I  Like  Best 

9.  The  Quality  I  Admire  Most  in  a  Boy. 
10.  My  Favorite  Flower. 

,11.  The  Most  Impressive  Thing  in  Nature. 


SUMMARY  111 

12.  The  Quality  I  Admire  Most  in  a  Girl. 

13.  My  Favorite  Study. 

14.  My  Favorite  Character  in  Fiction. 

15.  What  Makes  Happiness. 

16.  The  Most  Dramatic  Incident  in  Ameri- 
can History. 

The  subject  must  be  one  that  offers  a 
range  of  ideas.  It  should  draw  largely 
from  general  knowledge,  unless  special 
time  is  given  to  gather  data.  It  must  be 
within  the  range  of  the  class.  Given  these, 
you  will  have  a  successful  discussion.  We 
must  always  remember  that  things  that 
seem  thrashed  threadbare  to  grown-ups 
are  not  necessarily  so  to  younger  folks. 

SUMMARY 

Chapter  VI  recognizes  the  development 
of  personality  and  individuality  as  perti- 
nent to  the  English  classroom.  The  stu- 
dents should  be  rated  above  the  subject- 
matter  and  the  varied  endowments  of  such 
students  be  taken  into  consideration.  Too 
often  the  classroom  deadens  personality; 
the  boy  or  the  girl  of  ego  plus  is  harshly 
reproved  instead  of  guided.  The  emotive 
state  influences  thought;  therefore,  a  class 


112         SYMPOSIUM  IN  ENGLISH 

plan  that  is  enjoyable  brings  out  the  best 
thought.  The  symposium  presents 
thought-provoking  situations  or  questions 
for  discussion.  It  arouses  the  students'  de- 
sire to  conquer  through  their  ideas.  The 
club  discussion  promotes  sympathy  and 
sociability,  both  aids  to  the  best  work. 
Personal  responsibility  is  developed. 
Thought  and  discussion  are  carried  be- 
yond, the  classroom  to  the  school  corridors 
and  to  the  home.  The  chapter  points  out 
that  the  teacher  must  assume  the  point  of 
view  of  young  people  to  manage  the 
symposium  successfully.  The  sample 
lesson  shows  exactly  how  such  a  plan  is 
managed.  The  plan,  further,  encourages 
free  discussion,  independence  of  thought, 
a  renunciation  of  personal  views,  if  better 
views  are  championed;  it  forces  out 
opinion,  develops  spontaneous  expression, 
in  the  form  of  a  plea  brings  out  latent 
oratorical  power.  Yet  it  is  a  definite 
exercise  in  reflective  thinking,  rather  than 
in  spontaneous,  because  students  weigh, 
choose,  reject,  before  they  submit  their 
own  personal  views.  Furthermore,  it  is  a 
most  potent  use  of  curiosity,  definitely 
directed. 


CHAPTER  VII 

A  MYTHOLOGICAL  SYMPOSIUM 

A  KNOWLEDGE  of  Greek  mythology  is 
necessary  in  order  to  comprehend  allu- 
sions in  the  English  classics.  Milton's 
poems  abound  in  references, — more  or  less 
indirect, — to  ancient  mythology.  Unless 
the  student  knows  the  details  of  the  Tro- 
jan War,  of  the  story  of  Orpheus  and 
Eurydice,  of  Perseus  and  the  Gorgon, 
he  can  not  have  full  pleasurable  compre- 
hension of  such  lines  as: 

"  That  Orpheus'  self  may  heave  his  head 
From  golden  slumber  on  a  bed1 
Of  heaped  Elysian  flowers,  and  hear 
Such  strains  as  would  have  won  the  ear 
Of  Pluto  to  have  quite  set  free 
His  half -regained  Eurydice." 

L' Allegro 

"  Sometime  let  gorgeous  Tragedy 
In  sceptered  pall  come  sweeping  by, 
Presenting  Thebes',  or  Pelops'  line 
Or  the  tale  of  Troy  divine." 

II  Penseroso 

8  113 


114   A  MYTHOLOGICAL  SYMPOSIUM 

"  What  was  that  snaky-headed  Gorgon  shield 
That  wise  Minerva  wore,  unconquered  vir- 
gin.    .     .     ." 

Comus 

The  symposium  offers  an  entertaining 
means  of  getting  mythological  reports 
in  history.  Plenty  of  time  must  be 
allowed  for  outside  'reading  and  arrange- 
ment of  material.  Encourage  pupils  to 
vitalize  their  reports  in  all  possible  ways. 

Some  announcement  can  be  made: 
"  We  have  an  invitation  here  for  the  class. 
Harold,  will  you  read  it?  " 

The  class  straightens  up  intently,  as 
Harold  reads: 

"The  members  of  Section  B  of  the 
Ancient  History  Class  are  invited  by  the 
Olympian  Council  to  be  present  at  a 
symposium  Thursday  morning,  October 
twenty-first,  in  the  History  Room." 
'  Why,  that's  here!  "  eyes  are  saying. 

"  You  may  accept  this  invitation. 
We'll  take  the  whole  period.  Let  each 
student  consider  himself  a  reporter  and 
take  notes  of  what  these  gods  and  god- 
desses have  to  say  for  themselves."  Then 
the  class  takes  up  the  regular  lesson,  from 


A  MYTHOLOGICAL  SYMPOSIUM     115 

which  only  a  few  minutes  have  been  lost 
by  the  announcement. 

The  next  step  is  to  pick  out  twelve 
representative  students  for  the  Olympian 
Council  and  instruct  them.  Keep  such 
details  secret — it  adds  to  the  zest — and 
put  books  in  the  way  of  the  twelve.  Each 
student  is  instructed  to  sift  out  the  main 
facts  about  himself  or  herself,  as  assigned 
a  character,  then  to  condense  them  in  out- 
line form  and  be  ready  to  make  a  speech 
in  persona  del  or  deae. 

When  we  had  the  ten-minute  session 
after  school  to  discuss  plans,  one  piped  in : 
'  Why  couldn't  we  represent  ourselves 
as  nearly  as  possible  like  the  original?  " 

"Go  ahead!"  was  the  reply.  "Find 
out  what  was  associated  with  the  god, 
what  he  carried,  etc.  See  if  you  have 
cleverness  enough  to  supply  them.  You 
are  to  do  this  entirely  yourselves!  I  shall 
only  advise." 

What  fun  they  had!  What  secret  con- 
ferences !  What  poring  over  mythologies ! 
What  struggles  to  arrange  and  condense 
material  into  a  fair  description!  And 
what  curiosity  on  the  part  of  the  class,  not 


116     A  MYTHOLOGICAL  SYMPOSIUM 

actively  engaged!    Their  turn  came  next, 
we  had  promised. 

The  day  before,  we  had  appointed  the 
onlookers  lesser  deities,  and  instructed 
each  to  print  heavily  the  name  on  a  piece 
of  cardboard  and  pin  it  over  the  heart  for 
identification.  The  Olympian  Council  did 
likewise, — as  Jupiter,  Mars,  Apollo,  Vul- 
can, Mercury,  Neptune,  Juno,  Minerva, 
Venus,  Vesta,  Ceres,  Diana. 

THE  COUNCIL  IN  SESSION 

On  the  eventful  Thursday  there  was  a 
suppressed  eagerness  for  history  period 
to  arrive.  In  changing  classes  the  partici- 
pants were  allowed  to  go  to  their  cloak- 
room for  a  moment  to  get  their  impedi- 
menta. The  guests — the  lesser  deities — 
were  seated  in  the  rear  of  the  room.  One 
by  one,  the  Olympian  Council  filed  in, 
Jupiter  in  the  lead. 

"  Look  at  Jupe! "  whispered  Cupid  on 
the  back  seat.  "  He  has  a  crown,  a 
shield,  and  a  bunch  of  lightning  rods ! " 
These  were  made  of  cardboard,  covered 
with  gold  or  silver  paper. 

Jupiter  took  the  chair  and  motioned 


THE  COUNCIL  IN  SESSION        117 

Juno  to  a  seat  beside  him.  Mercury  sat 
close  by,  and  the  others  arranged  them- 
selves in  the  seats  reserved  at  the  side  of 
the  room.  There  was  a  vacant  space  in 
the  front  for  speakers.  The  king  of  gods 
and  men  picked  up  a  lightning  bolt  as 
gavel. 

"  The  Olympian  Council  will  come  to 
order!" 

At  a  look  from  the  silent  partner,  pens 
"  got  busy." 

Then  the  "  father  of  gods  and  men  " 
bowed  to  the  assembled  Council  and  to  the 
lesser  deities  in  the  rear  of  the  room, — 
Cupid,  Bacchus,  Pan,  Pluto,  Ganymede, 
Psyche,  Triton,  Proteus,  Nereus,  Proser- 
pino. 

"  Gods  of  Greece/'  he  began,  "  all  obey  me 
but  the  Fates.  They  are  mightier  than  I! 
On  Mt.  Olympus  I  live  in  a  wonderful  palace, 
have  a  famous  oracle  at  Dodona,  games  in  my 
honor  at  Olympia,  and  also  a  magnificent 
temple  there.  My  father  Chronos  ate  up  his 
children,  so  my  mother  Rhea  fooled  him  by 
giving  him  a  stone  instead  of  me.  Hope  it 
gave  him  a  pain!  I  grew  immense  in  a  few 


118    A  MYTHOLOGICAL  SYMPOSIUM 

days  and  made  myself  king  of  heaven.  I 
punished  Prometheus  for  stealing  the  divine 
fire  with  which  he  created  the  first  man,  by 
chaining  him  to  a  rock  with  a  vulture  to  gnaw 
at  his  liver.  I  can  change  my  form  at  will 
and  wander  down  to  earth  to  see  how  mortals 
behave.  When  I  was  disgusted  with  them 
once,  I  sent  a  flood  and  only  one  man  and 
one  woman  escaped.  I  have  loved  many 
mortals,  lo,  Callisto,  and  Europa,  but  Juno 
is  very  jealous.  Victory  is  with  me  always." 

He  bowed  to  his  consort  Juno,  who 
bowed  graciously  in  return.  She  wore  a 
crown  and  held  up  a  pasteboard  peacock. 
In  a  short  speech  she  admitted  her  jealous 
nature,  but  told  how  Jupiter  dangled  her 
out  of  heaven  on  a  golden  chain  to  re- 
taliate. At  her  wedding  the  golden  apples 
of  Hesperides  were  presented  to  her.  Her 
daughter  Hebe  served  the  gods  until  she 
tripped  with  the  nectar,  and  then  Jupiter 
got  Ganymede.  Iris  carried  all  her 
messages  down  to  earth  on  a  rainbow. 
She  took  an  active  part  in  all  the  affairs 
of  men — and  women,  too.  She  was 


THE  COUNCIL  IN  SESSION         119 

particularly  hostile  to  Hercules.  Then 
she  made  a  graceful  bow  and  sat  down. 

"  Minerva !  "  announced  Jupiter. 

The  Goddess  of  Wisdom,  with  a  paste- 
board owl  pinned  to  her  blouse,  an  olive 
wreath  on  her  head,  a  loom  in  her  hand, 

and  a  sword,  rose. 

• 

"Father  Jupiter/'  she  exclaimed,  "I 
sprang  full-armed  from  thy  forehead,  but  I 
brought  wisdom  to  mortals  and  peace  instead 
of  war.  When  the  great  city  of  Athens 
sought  for  a  name,  Neptune  and  I  both  asked 
for  the  honor.  He  presented  a  horse,  but  my 
gift  of  the  olive  and  all  that  it  stands  for, 
won.  I  am  Athena,  the  patron  goddess  of  the 
greatest  city  in  Greece.  The  Parthenon  is 
built  in  my  honor.  I  am  queen  of  the  loom 
and  no  mortal  dare  surpass  me.  Arachne, 
who  boasted  of  her  skill,  I  turned  into  a  spider, 
so  that  now  she  spins  and  spins  nothing  but 
cobwebs." 

"  Venus!  "  called  Chairman  Jupiter. 

Aphrodite  rustled  to  her  feet,  straight- 
ened the  myrtle  wreath  in  her  hair,  gave 
her  elaborately  embroidered  magic  girdle 
a  twist  and  then  addressed  the  chair.  She 


120   A  MYTHOLOGICAL  SYMPOSIUM 

patted  her  pasteboard  swans  and  threw 
an  engaging  smile  at  the  audience  in  the 
rear.  Then  she  told  of  her  miraculous 
birth  from  the  sea-foam  at  Cyprus,  and 
of  her  welcome  at  the  hall  of  the  gods, 
how  they  all  wooed  her,  and  how  Jupiter, 
because  she  refused  him,  made  her  marry 
Vulcan.  She  really  loved  them  all,  she 
said,  especially  the  warlike  Mars.  She 
loved  many  a  mortal,  too,  for  instance, 
poor  Adonis.  Paris,  prince  of  Troy,  pre- 
sented her  with  the  Apple  of  Discord  as 
the  most  beautiful  of  goddesses.  She 
loved  the  rose  and  the  myrtle,  was  at- 
tended by  the  three  Graces,  and  drove  a 
chariot  of  swans.  The  magic  girdle  made 
every  one  love  her. 

"I  rise  to  a  point  of  order  1"  Mars 
was  on  his  feet. 

"  State  your  point,"  said  Jupiter. 

"  Isn't  it  a  bit  irregular  to  take  all  of 
the  goddesses  first?  I  move  that  we  hear 
now  from  three  of  the  gods,  and  then 
alternate." 

Mercury  seconded  the  motion  and  it 
was  carried. 


THE  COUNCIL  IN  SESSION        121 

"  The  God  of  War  will  now  speak," 
announced  the  chairman. 

Mars  waved  his  spear  around  his  paste- 
board helmet  and  stood  his  big  shield  be- 
fore the  desk. 

"  I  am  god  of  war/'  he  began,  *'  married 
to  Venus  and  adored  by  the  Romans,"  etc. 

Mercury  hopped  out  next  in  a  winged 
cap,  shoes,  and  a  rod  with  serpents  (the 
caduceus).  He  told  of  his  trickiness, 
which  won  him  the  title  "  god  of  thieves." 
He  was  god  of  commerce,  he  said,  had 
found  a  tortoise  shell  and  invented  the 
lyre,  which  he  gave  to  Apollo.  He  was 
messenger  of  the  gods  and  usually  mixed 
up  in  everything  that  was  going  on. 

Twanging  on  a  cardboard  lyre,  with  a 
laurel  wreath  on  her  curly  head  and  a  bow 
and  arrow  over  her  shoulder,  the  prettiest 
girl  in  the  class  impersonated  Apollo  and 
told  of  his  adventures. 

"  I  was  born  on  the  island  of  Delos  with 
my  sister  Diana.  I  killed  the  Python  where 
the  Pythian  games  are  held  at  Delphi,  and 
established  an  oracle  nearby.  Every  morn- 
ing from  the  palace  of  the  sun  I  drive  the 


122    A  MYTHOLOGICAL  SYMPOSIUM 

chariot  across  the  sky,  attended  by  the  Hours. 
This  is  a  picture  of  me !" 

The    speaker    held    up     Guido    Reni's 
"  Aurora." 

"  My  favorite  haunt  is  Mount  Parnassus, 
where  I  teach  the  Muses  many  things.  Here 
is  also  a  very  famous  statue  of  me !  " 

Then  she  held  up  a  copy  of  the  Apollo 
Belvidere,  a  detail  of  the  head. 

Vesta  followed  with  a  painted  torch  and 
told  of  her  devotion  to  the  hearth,  the 
home,  and  the  sacred  fire.  With  a  small 
sheaf  of  wheat  on  her  arm,  Ceres  mourned 
again  the  loss  of  ProserpinoX  and  told  of 
her  love  for  the  fields.  She  spoke  of  her 
two  attendants,  Flora  and  Pomona,  and 
of  the  fact  that  cereals  for  breakfast  are 
named  after  her.  Diana  was  a  boyish- 
looking  girl  with  a  picture  of  a  deer  and 
bow  and  arrows.  She  said  she  was  the 
Moon  goddess  who  drove  the  car  of  night 
across  the  sky.  Then  she  told  how  she 
and  her  brother  Apollo  had  punished 
Niobe  for  boasting  herself  and  children 
as  good  as  the  gods. 

Tapping  time  with  a  trident,  Neptune 
came  up  next  and  described  his  wonderful 


THE  COUNCIL  IN  SESSION        123 

palaces  under  the  sea,  his  chariot  of  sea- 
shells,  which  rides  the  waves,  and  the 
creatures  under  his  control.  When  he 
left,  Vulcan  limped  forward  and  told  how 
he  came  by  the  limp,  how  he  lived  and 
worked  inside  the  volcanoes,  how  the 
Cyclops  were  his  blacksmiths,  his  favorite 
haunts,  Mt.  Etna.  He  described  some  of 
the  wonderful  things  he  had  made,  girdles, 
chariots,  armor,  even  Pandora.  In  his 
hand  he  carried  a  hammer. 

Pens  and  pencils  had  been  busily  writ- 
ing and  eyes  taking  in  every  detail.  Each 
face  wore  an  absorbed  expression,  chang- 
ing at  intervals  to  a  smile  when  the  new 
speaker  held  up  his  regalia. 

There  was  no  doubt  about  the  success 
of  the  period.  The  next  time  the  Council 
listened  and  the  lesser  deities  held  the 
floor.  We  found  that  they  associated  the 
details  about  the  god  or  the  goddess  with 
the  previous  speaker  and  remembered 
most  of  the  details.  The  idea  of  imper- 
sonation gave  a  sort  of  dramatic  appeal, 
and  a  concreteness  that  did  much  to 
vitalize  the  reading  of  mythology. 


124    A  MYTHOLOGICAL  SYMPOSIUM 

SUBJECTS   FOR  A   MYTHOLOGICAL 
SYMPOSIUM 

1.  A  meeting  of  the  Olympian  Council 
as  described. 

2.  With  the  lesser  deities. 

Cupid,  Psyche,  Pluto,  Pan,  Hebe, 
Ganymede,  Bacchus,  Triton,  Proteus, 
Nereus,  Saturn,  Chronos,  Uranus,  Fates, 
Furies,  and  Nemesis  offer  good  material. 

3.  The  Trojan  War. 

Portion  out  the  story  among  a  number 
of  students, — the  cause,  the  equipment  of 
the  Greeks,  the  stratagem  of  Ulysses  to 
avoid  going,  how  Ulysses  found  Achilles, 
the  sacrifice  of  Iphigenia,  the  quarrel  of 
Agamemnon  and  Achilles,  the  duel  be- 
tween Paris  and  Menelaus,  Hector  and 
Ajax,  why  Achilles  was  angry,  death  of 
Patroclus,  how  Achilles  killed  Hector, 
the  wooden  horse,  the  entrance  to  the  city, 
the  violation  of  the  temples. 

4.  The  adventures  of  Ulysses. 

These  arrange  themselves  in  such 
topics  as:  Ulysses  and  the  Cyclops,  with 
Aeolus,  the  disaster  at  Lames,  in  Circe's 
palace,  with  the  king  of  the  dead,  the  song 
of  the  sirens,  Scylla  and  Charybdis,  the 


SUBJECTS  FOR  A  SYMPOSIUM     125 

oxen  of  the  sun,  the  isle  of  Calypso,  at 
the  court  of  King  Alcinous,  the  suitors  of 
Penelope,  Ulysses  at  Ithaca,  as  a  beggar, 
the  killing  of  the  suitors. 

5.  The  Argonautic  Expedition. 

6.  The  Labors  of  Hercules. 

The  reason;  and  each  labor  taken 
separately. 

7.  Theseus  and  the  Minotaur,. 

8.  Cadmus  at  Thebes. 

9.  The  Adventures  of  Perseus. 

10.  The  Wanderings  of  JEneas. 

11.  At    Home    with    Ancient    Greek 
Women. 

Their  daily  life,  etc.  Then  the  stories 
of  such  women  as  Antigone,  Penelope, 
Cassandra,  Niobe,  Ariadne,  Arachne, 
Medea,  Atalanta,  Eurydice,  Andromache, 
Helen  of  Troy,  Pandora,  Iphigenia,  Dido 
(as  a  visitor  from  Carthage) . 

12.  Interviewing  Ancient  Monsters. 

A  short  description  of  the  following, 
with  a  picture,  if  possible : 

Satyr,  Chimera,  Sphinx,  Titan,  Cy- 
clops, Pegasus,  Centaur,  Griffin,  Pigmy, 
Tityus,  Enceladus,  Briareus,  Typhon, 
Circe,  Siren,  Scylla,  Charybdis,  Harpy, 
Cerberus,  Sibyl. 


126    A  MYTHOLOGICAL  SYMPOSIUM 

13.  A  Day  with  the  Heroes. 
Good  for  review. 

SUMMARY 

Chapter  VII  shows  how  a  great  deal 
of  mythological  story  can  be  imparted  in 
a  short  time.  The  mythological  sym- 
posium proves  that  students  themselves 
can  gather  material,  sift,  organize  and 
present  it  in  attractive  speech.  Many 
teachers  by  insisting  on  managing  such 
outside  work  themselves  deprive  the 
pupils  of  the  benefits  that  should  be  theirs. 
The  chapter  shows  how  responsibility,  will 
expand  the  pupils'  powers;  how  intense 
application  comes  from  interest  in  a  sub- 
ject without  the  teacher's  aid,  if  there 
is  the  chance  of  self-expression.  It  is  a 
most  legitimate  use  of  the  dramatic  ex- 
pression; it  quickens  wit,  gives  confidence 
to  those  who  are  timid,  minimizes  the  labor 
of  reports  and  develops  a  love  of  study. 
It  gives  a  zest  and  enthusiasm  to  class- 
room work,  demands  rapidity  of  pro- 
cedure, develops  class  pride,  and,  best  of 
all,  makes  the  students  independent  of  the 
teacher. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
ORAL,  COMPOSITION  IN  HISTORY 

THE  history  text-book  gives  the  skele- 
ton of  the  subject;  outside  reading  builds 
flesh  and  blood.  The  former  is  largely 
dry  bones  of  fact;  the  latter  vitalizes  the 
period.  Since  the  best  colleges  demand 
this  reference  reading  before  certificate 
Tights  of  entrance  are  given,  how  can  it 
be  done  most  satisfactorily? 

The  first  requirement  is  the  library. 

If  the  school  is  in  a  large  city,  the 
public  library  will  furnish  books,  requir- 
ing monthly  reports  on  the  use.  This 
entails  no  expense,  except  for  loss  of 
books,  for  which  students  concerned  can 
be  taxed.  Arrangements  can  often  be 
made  to  have  books  forwarded  from  the 
state  library. 

REFERENCE  READING  AND  THE  TEXT-BOOK 

The  next  problem  for  the  teacher  is: 
How  to  systematize  reference  reading  in 
connection  with  the  text-book. 

127 


128  ORAL  COMPOSITION  IN  HISTORY 

To  plunge  a  first-year  class  of  history 
students  into  full  reference  reading,  with 
notes,  bibliography  and  reports,  is  unwise, 
because  they  do  not  know  a  bibliography 
from  a  bibliophile ;  they  can  not  take  notes 
intelligently;  they  are  timid  and  inco- 
herent in  giving  reports.  Reference  read- 
ing, therefore,  must  be  cumulative;  it 
must  be  worked  up  gradually. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  year,  then,  the 
text-book  might  demand  most  of  the  time 
of  preparation,  because  it  not  only  is 
difficult  in  itself  but  introduces  a  new 
field  with  unpronounceable  words.  There 
ought  to  be  special  training  in  accurate 
regard  for  truth,  therefore  it  is  often 
profitable  in  the  first  term's  work  (study 
of  the  Eastern  nations  and  Greece)  to 
outline  the  chapters  by  topics.  This  de- 
velops power  of  analysis, — in  weighing 
and  arranging  facts. 

English  and  geography  should  con- 
stantly be  correlated  with  history.  Spell- 
ing and  pronouncing  lessons  help  wonder- 
fully with  the  proper  names.  A  time- 
saving  method  is  as  follows:  fold  theme 


BEGINNING  OUTSIDE  READING   129 

paper  vertically ;  write  in  the  first  column, 
as  the  teacher  dictates,  the  new  proper 
words  of  the  chapter;  on  the  next  day 
write  these  same  words  from  dictation  in 
the  second  column  and  correct  them  by 
comparing  the  two  columns. 

Good  free-hand  maps  should  be  insisted 
upon,  and  the  use  of  crayons  encouraged. 
It  pays  to  have  students  file  away  all 
written  work  in  history  at  the  end  of  the 
month  in  cardboard  covers,  on  which  they 
have  sketched  appropriate  designs.  These 
folders  of  work  can  be  left  in  the  teacher's 
caire  until  reviews  for  examinations,  when 
pupils  find  the  topical  outlines  of  use. 

BEGINNING    THE    OUTSIDE    READING 

Begin  the  outside  reading  in  the  first 
term  by  a  bit  of  home  work  on  the  Old 
Testament  to  illustrate  the  life  of  the 
Hebrews, — no  attempt  to  keep  records, 
just  to  report  spontaneously. 

In  Greek  history  go  a  step  further. 
Explain  how  a  bibliography  may  be  kept 
— author's  name,  title  of  book,  number  of 
9 


130  ORAL  COMPOSITION  IN  HISTORY 

pages  read,  and  the  main  topics.  For 
example — 

Guerber:  Story  of  the  Greeks,  pp.  104-136, 
Persian  Wars. 

Fling:  Source  Book  of  Greek  History,  pp. 
144-156,  Age  of  Pericles. 

Set  the  slow  students  at  easy  reading, 
like  Guerber's  Story  of  the  Greeks,  and 
keep  the  mature  books  for  the  more  de- 
veloped minds.  Direct  pupils  to  spend 
about  ten  minutes  a  day  on  the  reference 
reading,  and  the  rest  of  the  time  on  the 
text.  Post  references  on  the  blackboard 
about  every  two  weeks. 

Pay  most  attention  to  mythology,  the 
Trojan  War,  etc.,  and  to  interesting  bits 
of  biography.  Dwell  on  the  human  inter- 
est side;  try  to  create  Greek  atmosphere 
rather  than  to  search  out  additional  facts. 
Do  not  nail  down  beginners  to  a  fuller 
record  of  such  reading  than  a  scant  bibli- 
ography, or  they  may  dislike  the  reading, 
and  that  is  fatal.  Let  them,  rather,  learn 
to  read  rapidly,  to  enjoy  the  reading,  and 
to  talk  freely  about  it. 


TALKS:   REPORTS  OF  READING    131 

"  ONE-MINUTE    TALKS "    FOR    REPORTS    OF 
READING 

In  the  second  term's  work  (Roman  his- 
tory) pique  the  pride  of  the  class  by  the 
statement  that  they  are  to  have  "  grown- 
up "  reference  reading.  Several  inspir- 
ing years  with  large  classes  of  boys  in  an 
academy  prompt  me  to  describe  how  we 
got  splendid  results. 

In  this  second  term  we  completely 
changed  our  method  of  work.  Instead  of 
outlining  Wolf  son  (Wolf  son's  Essentials 
of  Ancient  History)  we  took  a  whole 
chapter  at  a  time  for  rapid  home  reading 
and  in  one-minute  talks  had  the  ground- 
work of  the  chapter  given  in  class.  In 
doing  this  students  were  forced  to  develop 
power  to  read  rapidly  and  to  recall  salient 
features.  There  was  no  written  work  on 
the  text-book  except  maps,  lists,  charts, 
themes,  etc.,  no  continuous  outlines  as 
before. 

For  the  next  three  or  four  days  refer- 
ence reading,  based  on  the  chapter,  was 
assigned.  This  reading  was  now  as  care- 
fully outlined  as  the  chapter  in  the  text- 
book had  been,  but  with  less  detail;  and 


132  ORAL  COMPOSITION  IN  HISTORY 

a  much  larger  bibliography  was  kept. 
At  each  history  period  in  these  four  days, 
then,  each  student  reported  on  his  read- 
ing for  the  day,  which  was  done  in  school 
hours. 

Often  we  reversed  the  order  and  took 
reference  reading  first,  winding  up  with 
the  text-book.  Use  of  these  two  methods 
familiarized  the  students  with  inductive 
and  deductive  methods  of  attack,  with 
analysis  and  synthesis. 

THE  HISTORICAL  SPIRIT 

But  the  greatest  achievement  of  the 
class  was  catching  "  the  historical  spirit." 
To  aid  in  this,  we  schemed  out  a  ten-sided 
ideal,  as  follows: 

I.  Learn  rapid  reading. 
II.  Learn  rapid  note-taking. 
III.  Learn  to  make  a  bibliography  and  to 

gather  material  from,  sources. 
IV.  Train  not  only  the  memory  for  details 
but  power  of  analysis,  reasoning, 
and  stick-to-it-ive-ness. 
V.  Do  further  historical  reading  at  home. 
VI.  Search  beneath  the  fact  for  the  cause. 


THE  HISTORICAL  SPIRIT          133 

VII.  Appreciate  the  personal  element. 
VIII.  Develop  a  critical  attitude;  make  com- 
parisons   with   Greek   history   and 
with  modern  conditions. 
IX.  Try  to  understand  contradictory  state- 
ments, to  search  out  sources. 
X.  By    daily    practice    in    "  one-minute 
talks  "  make  yourselves  ready  and 
self-reliant  in  discussion,  and  able 
to  face  an  audience. 

And  we  did  those  ten  things;  even  the 
poorest  student  greatly  improved  in  his 
effort.  It  was  not  easy  to  manage,  be- 
cause we  tried  to  have  the  class  teach 
themselves.  In  other  words,  we  resolved 
them  into  a  history  club  (you  know  how 
"club"  appeals  to  a  boy!)  with  the 
teacher  as  silent  partner  and  a  different 
boy  each  day  in  the  presidential  chair. 
They  had  a  practical  appreciation  of,  and 
respect  for,  parliamentary  law.  Oral 
composition  in  the  form  of  talks  was  the 
method  for  reports.  At  intervals  there 
were  spirited  quizzes  and  examinations, 
when  the  "  club "  was  temporarily  set 
aside. 


134  ORAL  COMPOSITION  IN  HISTORY 

RESULTS 

We  have  at  hand  slips  of  paper  con- 
taining the  books  used  by  each  student  in 
Roman  history.  For  the  poorest  student 
the  number  is  eight;  for  the  best,  sixteen, 
with  eight  biographies  and  historical 
novels  extra.  The  average  is  thirteen. 
Thirteen  authors  with  whom  they  were 
familiar!  Thirteen  books  over  which 
they  had  closely  pored! 

A  book  became  more  than  a  mere  book. 
It  became  the  product  of  an  author. 
Furthermore,  the  boys  became  very 
shrewd  in  weighing  the  antecedents  and 
relative  authority  of  these  same  authors. 
Their  respect  for  the  work  of  an  historian 
grew. 

We  should  like  to  tell  you  more  of  the 
dub  management,  with  the  hot  debates, 
the  tracing  of  statements  back  to  sources, 
the  delight  in  learning  things  for  them- 
selves instead  of  having  them  thrust  down 
their  intellectual  throats;  we  should  like 
you  to  spend  a  class  period  with  them  and 
see  for  yourself  the  parliamentary  disci- 
pline, but,  as  Kipling  says,  "  that's  an- 
other story! " 


ROMAN  HISTORY  135 

In  conclusion,  is  added  the  list  of  read- 
ings for  Roman  history  as  it  may  be  sug- 
gestive to  teachers. 

OUTSIDE  READING ROMAN  HISTORY 

I.  The  Early  Kings 

GUERBER  :   Story  of  the  Romans,  pp.  1 1-69. 
CHURCH:   Stories  from  Livy,  pp.  12—90. 
MORRIS:    Historical  Tales;  Roman,  pp.  7—42. 
HAAREN  AND  POLAND:   Famous  Men  of  Rome, 

pp.  9-57. 

LAING:  Heroes  of  the  Seven  Hills,  pp.  11—38. 
BONNER:  Child's  History  of  Rome,  pp.  13-71. 
B  UTTER  WORTH  :  Little  Arthur's  History  of 

Rome,  pp.   3-52. 

YONGE:   Popular  History  of  Rome,  pp.  13-54. 
OILMAN:    Story  of  Rome,  pp.  1-68. 
GOODSPEED:    History   of  the  Ancient  World, 

pp.  240-264. 
CLOUGH:   Plutarch's  Lives  of  Illustrious  Men, 

pp.  13-28   (large  Plutarch). 
KAUFMAN:    Our  Young  Folks'  Plutarch,  pp. 

30-40   (small  Plutarch). 
COLLINS:    Livy,  pp.  15-29. 
MUNRO:     Source    Book    of    Roman    History, 

pp.  2-5. 


136  ORAL  COMPOSITION  IN  HISTORY 

II.   The  Early  Republic  and  Struggle  of  the 
Classes 

CHURCH:   pp.  91-161. 

LIVY:    pp.  30-58. 

GILMAN:   pp.  69-97. 

MORRIS:   pp.  43—74. 

YONGE:   pp.  55-100. 

PLUTARCH   (small) :    75—85. 

LAING:  pp.  39-137. 

BUTTERWORTH:  pp.  55-77. 

HAAREN  AND  POLAND:  pp.  58-81. 

BONNER:   pp.  72-113. 

PLUTARCH   (large):    153-169. 

GUERBER:   pp.  69—98. 

GOODSPEED:   pp.  265—278. 

GILMAN:   Magna   Charta   Stories,  pp.   23-37, 

37-52. 
MUNRO:    pp.  41-52,  53-64,  66-72. 

777.  Early  Conquests  to  the  Punic  Wars 

CHURCH:  pp.  162-277. 

LIVY:    pp.  58-106. 

GILMAN:    pp.  98-125. 

MORRIS:    pp.  75-125. 

YONGE:   pp.  101-150. 

PLUTARCH  (small):    pp.  141-153,  243-253. 


ROMAN  HISTORY  137 

LAING:  pp.  163-190,  198-228,  291-302,  309- 

367. 
BUTTERWORTH  :  pp.  78-88. 

HAAREN  AND  POLAND:  pp.  82-113. 

BONNER:  pp.  114-167. 

PLUTARCH  (large):    pp.  90-106,  275-291. 

GUERBER:  pp.  98-121. 

GOODSPEED:    pp.  279-289. 

MUNRO:   pp.  72—77. 

IV.  The  Punic  Wars 

LIVY:    pp.  107-153. 

GILMAN:   pp.  126-148. 

GILMAN:  Magna  Charta  Stories,  pp.  106-122. 

;MORRIS:   pp.  126-164. 

GOODSPEED:    pp.  300-309. 

YONGE:   pp.  151-180. 

GUERBER:  pp.  121-142. 

PLUTARCH    (small):    pp.   275-285,   285-295, 

309-318. 

BUTTERWORTH:   pp.  83-95. 
HAAREN  AND  POLAND:  pp.  114-140. 
BONNER:    pp.  168-241. 
PLUTARCH    (large):    pp.   124-135,   216-229, 

242-256. 
CHURCH:   pp.  3-34,  35-45,  95-125,  129-165, 

178-224,  225-264.,  265-301. 


138  ORAL  COMPOSITION  IN  HISTORY 

SHUCKBURGH:   The  Histories  of  Polybius,  pp. 

9-114,  132-133,  166-275,  525-534,  550- 

562,  564-574,  582-586. 
MUNRO:  pp.  78-91. 

V.  Romans  in  the  East 

LIVY:    pp.  154-182. 

OILMAN:  pp.  148-166. 

YONGE:  pp.  181-194. 

GUERBER:  pp.  142-148. 

PLUTARCH    (smaU) :    pp.   253-262,   262-268, 

268-275,  302-309,  318-330. 
PLUTARCH    (large):    pp.   724-742,   568-575, 

575-588,  264-274,  188-202. 

GOODSPEED:  pp.  311-319- 
MUNRO:  pp.  93-102. 

VI.  The  Gracchi— Marius— Sulla 

GILMAN:  pp.  167-197. 

MUNRO:  pp.  124-166. 

YONGE:  pp.  195-228. 

MUNRO:  pp.  104-106. 

MORRIS:  pp.  164-197. 

GOODSPEED:    pp.  331-343. 

BONNER:   pp.  242-274. 

HAAREN  AND  POLAND:  pp.  142-170. 

GUERBER:  pp.  148-170. 


ROMAN  HISTORY  139 

PLUTARCH    (small):    Tiberius   Gracchus,  pp. 
330-337. 

Caius  Gracchus,  pp.  337-343. 

Marius,  pp.  343-358. 

Sulla,  pp.   358-365. 
BUTTERWORTH  :    pp.  96-100. 
OMAN:  SEVEN  ROMAN  STATESMEN:   T.  Grac- 
chus, pp.  1-50. 

C.  Gracchus,  pp.  51-88. 

Marius,  pp.  89-161. 

Sulla,  pp.  116-161. 

PLUTARCH   (large):    T.   Gracchus,  pp.   588- 
596. 

C.  Gracchus,  pp.  597-604. 

Marius,  pp.  291-309. 

Sulla,  pp.  321-339. 

VII.  Pompey — Caesar — To  the  Empire 

GILMAN:  pp.  198-230,  231-270. 

YONGE:    pp.  228-272. 

MORRIS:  pp.  198-235. 

GOODSPEED:    pp.  343-357. 

BONNER:   pp.  275-307. 

HAAREN  AND  POLAND:  pp.  171-208. 

GUERBER:  pp.  165-197. 


140  ORAL  COMPOSITION  IN  HISTORY 

PLUTARCH   (small) :    Crassus,  pp.  365-376. 

Pompey,  pp.  385-398. 

Cicero,  pp.   398-406. 

Caesar,   pp.    406-418. 

Brutus,  pp.  429-438. 

Antony,  pp.  438-445. 
BUTTERWORTH:    pp.   100-110,  113-118,  125- 

135. 
OMAN:    Crassus,  pp.  162-203. 

Cato,  pp.   204-233. 

Pompey,  pp.  234-288. 

Caesar,  pp.  289-340. 

BURY:    Student's  Roman  Empire,  pp.  1-11. 
WALSH:    Roman  Empire,  pp.  11—23. 
CLARKE:    Csesar,  pp.  7-91,  91-148,  149-173. 
BONNER:    Vol.  2,  pp.  3-48. 
PLUTARCH  (large) :    Crassus,  pp.  383-398. 

Pompey,  pp.  436-471. 

Cicero,  pp.  617-634. 

Caesar,  pp.  505-529. 

Brutus,  pp.  703-724. 

Antony,   pp.    655—683. 

Cato,  pp.  543-568. 
CHURCH:   Roman  Life  and  Story,  pp.  1—9. 

Roman  Life  in  the  Days  of  Cicero,  pp. 
1-63,  64-129,  130-192,  193-247,  248- 
292. 
MUNRO:    pp.  124-131,  131-141. 


ROMAN  HISTORY  141 

VIII.  The  Early  Emperors 

GOODSPEED:    pp.  357-365,  370-381,  394-396. 

YONGE:   pp.  273-316. 

MORRIS:   pp.  236-318. 

HAAREN  AND  POLAND:  pp.  209-235. 

GUERBER:  pp.  197-238. 

BUTTERWORTH  :   pp.  135—177. 

BURY:    pp.  12-412  (leaf  over  rapidly). 

WALSH:   Augustus,  pp.  23—44. 

Tiberius,  pp.  44-92. 

Caligula,  pp.  92-100. 

Claudius,  pp.   101-112. 

Nero,  pp.  112-135. 

Galba,  Otho,  Vitellius,  pp.  136-158. 

Vespasian,  Titus,  Domitian,  pp.  158-175. 
BONNER:  Vol.  2,  Augustus — Nero,  pp.  49-92. 

Nero,  pp.  93-130. 
GIBBON:     Decline    and    Fall   of    the    Roman 

Empire  (selections). 
CHURCH:    Roman  Life  and  Story,  pp.  31-76, 

77-116,   148-192,   193-252. 
MUNRO:    pp.  143-152,  153-162. 

IX.  The  Good  Emperors  of  the  Second  Century 

GOODSPEED:    pp.  397-403. 
YONGE:   pp.  317-325. 


142  ORAL  COMPOSITION  IN  HISTORY 

HAAREN  AND  POLAND:  pp.  236-253. 
GUERBER:    pp.  239-251. 
BUTTERWORTH:    pp.   181-207. 
BROOKS:  Historic  Boys,  pp.  1-24. 
BURY:    pp.   413-456,  490-550. 
WALSH:  Nerva— Traj an,  pp.  176-187. 
Hadrian — Antonines,  pp.  187-206. 
BONNER,  vol.  2:    pp.   131-159. 
GIBBON:   (selections). 

CHURCH  :  Roman  Life  and  Story,  pp.  300-344. 
MUNRO:  pp.  165-174. 

X.  The  Later  Emperors 

GOODSPEED:    pp.  409-412,  416-426. 

YONGE:   pp.  326-382. 

MORRIS:    pp.  319-324. 

HAAREN  AND  POLAND:  pp.  254-269. 

GUERBER:    pp.  251-273. 

BUTTERWORTH:     pp.    208-220,   238-256. 

WALSH:  Commodus — Severus,  pp.  207-232. 

Caracalla — Alexander  Severus,  pp.  233- 
258. 

Maximin,  etc.,  pp.  258-288. 

Claudius  II,  etc.,  pp.  288-321. 

Diocletian,  pp.  322-363. 

Constantine,  pp.  363-401. 


ROMAN  HISTORY  143 

BONNER,  vol.  2:    Commodus,  pp.  159-1 94. 

Maximin — Diocletian,  pp.   195-231. 

Diocletian,  pp.  232-263. 
GIBBON:    Selected  paragraphs. 
MUNRO:  pp.  174-178. 

XI.  The  Barbaric  Invasion* 

GOODSPEED:  pp.  426-455. 

YONGE:    pp.  383-443. 

MORRIS:    pp.  325-340. 

GUERBER:   pp.  273-278. 

GILMAN:  Magna  Charta  Stories,  pp.  157-182. 

WALSH:     pp.    401-420,    420-441,    441-458, 

458-478. 

BONNER,  vol.  2 :  pp.  264-305. 
GIBBON:   Selected  paragraphs. 

XII.  Roman  Life 

GOODSPEED:   pp.  289-299,  320-333,  365-370, 

383-394,   403-407,   412-415. 
GUERBER:  pp.  142-148. 
BUTTERWORTH:    pp.  113-147,  200-207,  221- 

237. 

GILMAN:    pp.  271-332. 
BURY:   pp.  457-488,  550-626. 
GIBBON:   Selected  paragraphs. 


144  ORAL  COMPOSITION  IN  HISTORY 

WILKINS:    Classical  Antiquities,   Roman. 
PRESTON    AND   DODGE:    Private   Life  of   the 

Romans : 

Family,  house  and  life,  pp.  1—57. 
Classes,  food  and  clothes,  pp.  57-105. 
Agriculture,  travel,  etc.,  pp.   105—157. 
CHURCH:    Roman  Life  and  Story,  pp.  10-30. 
MUNRO:     pp.    179-192,    193-206,    206-216, 

217-237,   8-21,  23-40. 
PLINY  :    Translation : 

Bk.   II,  pp.  9-31,  Bk.   Ill,  pp.  37-57, 
Bk.  IV,  pp.  60-84,  84-102,  Bk.  V,  pp. 
104-120,  Bk.  VII,  pp.   180-204,  204- 
226,  Bk.  VIII,  pp.  232-250,  Bk.  IX, 
pp.  292-326,  Intro,  pp.  9-31. 
BUTTERWORTH:    Zigzag   Journeys,   pp.    190- 
200,   201-218,   219-247,   248-265,   266- 
296. 

SUMMARY 

Chapter  VIII  emphasizes  that  history 
teaching  should  not  be  mere  mechanical 
acquisition  of  facts,  but  an  organic  de- 
velopment,— in  other  words,  thinking.  It 
also  urges  that  pupils  must  be  taught  how 
to  study,  so  that  they  are  masters  of  their 
text-books,  not  mastered  by  them.  In 


SUMMARY  145 

many  schools  students  are  slaves  of  bad 
habits,  one  of  which  is  swallowing  text- 
books whole.  Teachers  are  shown  how  to 
combine  outside  reading  with  text-book 
work,  in  a  way  that  will  develop  rapidity 
of  reading,  accuracy*,  safe  memory,  relia- 
bility, and  independence.  The  chapter 
shows  how  to  make  such  reading  cumula- 
tive, how  to  make  it  scholarly  as  well  as 
diverting,  how  to  consult  sources,  weigh 
data,  exercise  scientific  doubt.  It  shows 
that  pupils  can  be  led  to  see  the  author's 
problem  and  to  consider  judiciously  how 
he  has  treated  the  problem;  therefore, 
their  use  of  books  is  improved.  It  further 
shows  how  students  can  be  taught  to  take 
notes  systematically,  to  keep  a  helpful 
bibliography  and  to  use  a  library  intelli- 
gently. As  reports  of  reading  are  given 
in  the  form  of  "  one-minute  talks  "  as  de- 
scribed in  this  book,  English  is  correlated 
with  history. 


10 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE  HISTORY  CLUB 

THE  history  classes  came  to  us  badly- 
assorted  and  poorly-prepared.  We  do 
not  dislike  such  classes  because  the  results 
are  more  startling;  it  also  puts  us  on 
our  mettle  to  get  results  from  each  of 
the  students.  The  test  of  a  method  is 
results.  We  hope  to  show  you  by  quoting 
from  papers  handed  in  during  the  first 
week  of  school  and  from  talks  given  at 
the  end  of  the  year  the  results  we  were 
able  to  get  from  such  a  class  by  using 
"  one-minute  talks  "  and  the  club  method. 

The  following  examples  of  a  pathetic 
half-knowledge,  words  misused,  bad  spell- 
ing, and  kindred  offences,  are  what  many 
teachers  have  to  contend  with  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  term. 

One  boy  said: 

"  India  is  a  peculiar  country  in  that  it  has 
so  many  kinds  of  ways.  The  people  are  put 
in  casks,  some  higher  than  the  proceeding. 


THE  HISTORY  CLUB  147 

The  husbands  are  not  allowed  to  see  their 
wives  and  when  a  man  had  some  jewelry  he 
couldn't  give  it  to  his  wife,"  etc. 

Another  wrote: 

"  The  history  of  the  civilized  world  is  di- 
vided into  three  areas.  The  first  is  an  area  of 
thirty  centuries  and  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Rhine." 

This  came  from  a  girl  who  was  lazy  in 
looking  at  words: 

"  There  were  a  class  of  people  settled  in 
China  and  one  day  arose  a  grate  relegoius 
preecher  named  Capacious." 

From  the  same  class  we  learned  that 
Memphis  was  the  capital  of  "  Egg- 
wiped,"  and  Carthage  was  on  the  "  Pro- 
thonotary  "  of  Africa. 

The  students  from  whom  we  have 
quoted  were  not  really  stupid,  they  merely 
had  not  learned  how  to  study. 

Let  us  make  a  plea  for  self-government 
and  self-teaching  in  history  classes,  con- 
tending that  such  a  method  will  often  do 


148  THE  HISTORY  CLUB 

more  to  cure  bad  spelling,  laziness,  half- 
knowledge,  and  general  inaccuracy  than 
the  recitation,  as  commonly  used.  The 
teacher  holds  the  hidden  wires  of  the  situa- 
tion and  directs  the  class  procedure 
through  the  students,  rather  than  directly. 
There  were  two  sections  in  our  ancient 
history  class,  which  dealt  with  college  pre- 
paratory work.  Let  us  describe  the  pro- 
cedure from  a  letter  written  by  a  boy 
from  whom  we  have  already  quoted  a 
specimen  of  poor  English  and  hazy  his- 
tory. This  was  written  six  months  later. 
Notice  the  definiteness. 

"  We  adopted  a  form  of  class  recitation 
which  helped  us  very  much.  We  formed  a 
club  and  had  a  different  president  every  day 
and  a  different  secretary  every  month.  This 
club  was  run  under  the  parliamentary  style, 
any  person  wishing  to  report  on  anything  he 
had  read  would  have  to  address  the  chair  and 
come  up  front  Therefore  you  may  readily  see 
that  we  have  not  been  idol  during  the  second 
term," 

Only  one  misspelled  word  and  to  the 
point! 


STUDENT  COMMENTS  149 

Criticism  of  one  another  made  that  boy 
more  careful  of  his  English  and  more 
accurate  in  his  facts. 

STUDENT  COMMENTS 

Before  taking  you  to  visit  such  classes 
we  wish  to  quote  what  the  boys  and  girls 
said  about  the  work,  when  they  wrote 
impromptu  letters  in  class,  presumably 
to  friends  in  other  schools  or  in  other 
countries.  They  were  telling  about  it  as 
a  thing  of  their  own. 

These  comments  were  as  follows: 

"  You  remember  that  I  wrote  you  concern- 
ing a  History  Club.  There  are  many  reasons 
why  I  am  interested  in  this  work.  In  the 
first  place,  the  ground  is  well-covered  and 
every  one  must  be  prepared.  Furthermore, 
our  English  is  put  to  practical  use  in  the  talks 
and  at  the  same  time  each  and  every  one  of 
us  is  made  familiar  with  parliamentary  prac- 
tice. As  you  see,  we  cover  at  least  four  dis- 
tinct branches  of  education:  History,  English, 
Parliamentary  Law,  and  Expression.  Trust- 
ing that  you  will  adopt  our  method  in  your 
school—"  etc.  (J.  L.) 


150  THE  HISTORY  CLUB 

"  This  year's  work  has  been  very  interesting 
to  me.  The  method  has  been  unusual  and  has 
held  interest  to  the  end.  I  do  not  value  so 
much  the  historical  facts  that  are  stored  in 
my  mind  as  the  catching  of  the  true  historical 
spirit.  I  enjoyed  to  a  great  extent  the  out- 
side reading,  as  it  always  left  on  my  mind  a 
clearer  impression.  The  '  one-minute  talks  ' 
I  also  enjoyed,  as  much  outside  information 
was  gleaned  from  them.  The  year's  work 
has  opened  up  a  new  field  for  me  and  I  feel 
that  I  can  pursue  the  work  alone  with  profit 
and  pleasure."  (I.  B.) 

"  The  year's  work  has  been  a  pleasure  and 
I  really  hate  to  see  the  class  close."  (C.  B.) 

"  Of  all  my  studies  this  year  I  have  enjoyed 
Ancient  History  the  most.  I  never  thought 
it  could  be  made  so  interesting  or  could  be 
so  easily  learned,  when  made  interesting. 
While  I  was  in  the  Public  School  I  studied 
United  States  History,  and  how  I  hated  it! 
We  got  facts  and  dates,  dates  and  facts, 
nothing  but  cold,  dry  facts.  This  year  was 
just  the  reverse;  we  got  facts  and  dates  but 


STUDENT  COMMENTS  151 

they  were  sugar-coated  and  not  hard  to 
swallow,  and  '  take  it  from  me/  as  Jeff  says, 
it's  the  only  way  to  learn  History."  (H.  R.) 

"  We  all  like  the  club  idea,  for  it  teaches 
us  to  think  while  facing  an  audience.'* 

(G.  M.) 

"  This  coming  up  before  the  class  to  give 
talks  was  very  good  training  because  all  gram- 
matical mistakes  were  corrected  by  the  pupils." 

(J.  M.) 

"  Before  I  was  in  the  History  Club  I  did 
not  know  much  about  parliamentary  law  but  I 
grew  interested.  I  am  not  the  only  one  to  say 
this,  but  many  others."  (L.  B.) 

"  I  never  thought  Ancient  History  could  be 
made  so  interesting.  I  am  not  stretching  the 
truth  when  I  say  that  I  would  not  have  missed 
this  year's  work  for  anything.  I  have  a  picture 
of  the  ancient  world  with  its  customs." 

(S.  W.) 

"  The  year's  work  has  been  a  great  surprise 
to  me.  Besides  going  through  Wolfson's  text- 
book we  have  been  doing  outside  reading,  which 
consisted  of  expanded  accounts  of  subjects  in 
the  text-book."  (H.  H.) 


152  THE  HISTORY  CLUB 

"  The  text-book  did  not  give  half  the  facts. 
The  club  helped  me  in  English  and  the  notes 
can  easily  be  looked  over  to  find  any  point." 

(E.  M.) 

"  I  got  to  know  more  about  the  different 
writers  of  Ancient  History  and  the  different 
ways  of  explaining  events.  I  think  that  the 
outside  reading  sort  of  spoiled  me,  because 
when  I  came  back  to  the  text-book,  I  did  not 
like  it  so  well  as  the  other."  (M .  S.) 

"  I  have  enjoyed  this  year's  work  im- 
mensely. I  think  of  the  two, — Greek  and 
Roman  History, — Roman  History,  although  a 
bit  more  difficult,  was  more  interesting  on 
account  of  the  club."  (C.  W.) 

"  The  club  was  a  great  benefit  to  the  stu- 
dents and  me  especially.  The  chairman 
learned  to  preside  over  the  audience,  which 
was  no  easy  matter  for  the  first  few  days." 

(J.  C.) 

"  I  have  indeed  enjoyed  my  year's  work  in 
History.  It  was  a  pleasure  to  see  how  all  the 
schemes  worked  out.  It  gives  me  more  confi- 
dence in  my  teacher  when  I  see  that  he  or  she 


STUDENTS  COMMENTS  153 

has  the  work  all  planned  out.  I  hope  to  go 
to  West  Point ;  and  I  think  I  shall  then  realize 
some  of  the  discipline  which  I  have  tried  to 
obey."  (P.  S.) 

"  This  year's  work  has  been  the  best  I  have 
ever  had.  I  owe  it  to  your  method,  for  or- 
ganizing the  History  Club  and  taking  pains  to 
bring  us  all  out  in  as  many  ways  as  possible. 
It  was  always  a  pleasure  to  be  in  the  class; 
all  the  students  felt  that  way."  (J.  C.) 

These  letters  come  from  the  five  highest 
in  the  class,  the  five  lowest,  and  five  in 
between.  Therefore  they  stand  for  class 
opinion,  and  as  they  were  written  when 
there  was  no  intention  of  using  them  to 
explain  a  method,  they  ought  to  be  a  fair 
statement  of  the  students'  point  of  view. 
Summarized  this  opinion  is  as  follows 
(students'  wording  used) : 

1.  Ground  well  covered. 

2.  Every  one  prepared. 

3.  English  of  practical  use. 

4.  Familiar  with  parliamentary  law. 

5.  Catch  the  true  historical  spirit. 

6.  Clearer  impression  from  outside  reading. 


154  THE  HISTORY  CLUB 

7.  Can    work    on    alone    with    profit    and 

pleasure. 

8.  Facts  sugar-coated,  not  dry. 

9.  Thinking    while    standing    facing    an 

audience. 

10.  Grammatical  mistakes  corrected  by  stu- 

dents from  the  floor. 

11.  Picture    of    the    ancient    world    and 

customs. 

12.  Value  of  outside  reading. 
18.  Notes  easily  looked  over. 

14.  Familiar  with  different  writers. 

15.  Different  explanations  offered. 

16.  Club  interests. 

17.  The  bashful  learn  to  preside. 

18.  Discipline. 

19.  Bringing    out    students    in    all    points 

possible. 

20.  Made  the  class  enjoyable. 

KINDS  OF  WORK  SHOWN  IN  THE  MINUTES 

We  introduced  the  club  method  on 
February  9th.  A  period  had  to  be  taken 
for  an  introductory  talk  on  the  main 
points  of  parliamentary  law.  Roberts' 
"  Rules  of  Order  "  or  some  such  manual 


WORK  SHOWN  IN  MINUTES       155 

might  be  placed  within  the  students' 
reach.  The  chapter  in  the  text-book  was 
assigned  for  rapid  reading  and  the  diffi- 
cult proper  names  from  the  chapter  were 
dictated  for  a  spelling  lesson  the  next  day, 
after  which  "  one-minute  talks "  were 
given  on  the  topics  in  the  chapter. 

On  the  following  day  further  work  of  a 
different  nature  was  assigned  on  the 
chapter:  perhaps  several  paragraph 
themes  based  on  important  topics,  particu- 
larly a  topic  that  meant  review  of  the 
whole  chapter ;  perhaps  an  outline  of  some 
main  points;  perhaps  a  map  or  chart  of 
some  sort;  perhaps  a  debate  on  an  im- 
portant point;  or  a  rapid  quiz  by  the 
teacher  or  by  the  students  questioning  one 
another. 

After  two  days  of  such  work  on  the 
chapter  in  the  text-book,  two  to  four  days 
were  spent  on  outside  reading  about  the 
period, — the  number  of  days  depending 
on  the  importance  of  the  epoch  and  the 
abundance  of  outside  material.  Such 
assignments  of  outside  reading  were  re- 
ported in  class  each  day  in  "  one-minute 
talks."  At  regular  intervals  examina- 


156  THE  HISTORY  CLUB 

tions  took  place,  when,  of  course,  the  club 
was  dropped  temporarily. 

If  there  is  an  understanding  that  the 
club  is  to  be  dropped  whenever  points  are 
not  fully  brought  out,  whenever  any  one 
lags  behind,  or  when  the  class  shows  in- 
ability to  cope  with  the  subject,  remark- 
ably steady  habits  aire  developed  among 
the  poor  students.  If  they  are  made  to 
feel  that  their  defection  will  jeopardize 
the  continuance  of  the  popular  history 
club,  they  bestir  themselves. 

Students  took  great  interest  in  corre- 
lating English,  geography,  spelling,  ex- 
temporaneous speaking,  expression,  and 
art  with  history.  They  corrected,  by 
"  rising  to  the  point  of  order,"  the  mis- 
takes in  grammar;  they  learned  to  make 
free-hand  maps  readily  and  well;  they 
mastered  the  spelling  of  the  new  words; 
they  thought  rapidly  "on  their  feet"; 
they  took  a  pride  in  catching  up  one  an- 
other in  pronunciation,  using  the  diction- 
ary for  ordinary  words  and  the  index  for 
historical  names;  they  improved  in  voice 
production,  in  holding  their  listeners  and 
in  gesture ;  and  last  of  all,  they  developed 


SAMPLES  OF  THE  MINUTES       157 

some  artistic  taste  by  designing  covers  for 
their  work  and  keeping  it  neat  for  ex- 
hibition and  final  marking. 


SAMPLES  OF  THE  MINUTES 

The  minutes,  kept  by  the  secretary 
appointed  every  two  or  three  weeks, 
clearly  showed  us  what  each  student  was 
doing.  Let  me  quote  sample  minutes 
exactly  as  written  down: 

February  14 :  Outline  the  Officers  of  the  Roman 
Republic,  based  on  Chapter  XX. 

Chairman  R 

Speaker  Topic  Corrections  by  Students 

W Consuls.  Mispronounced    "rex 

sacrorum." 

S Senate,    compared 

with  the  U.  S. 

S Consuls.  "  Councils "  for  "  con- 

suls," "which"  for 
"who." 

McC Comparison  of  treas- 
urer and  queestor. 
Second  talk  on  the 
decrease  in  war. 

W Statement  of    all  of-      Reproved  for  position. 

ficers.  Second  talk 
on  gladiatorial  com- 
bats. 

F Tribunes.  Double  subject. 

J.McC...       Decemviri.  "Adjective "  for  " ad- 

verb." 


158 


THE  HISTORY  CLUB 


A  motion  made  and  carried  that  no  one  get  angry  at  criticism* 
from  the  floor. 


Speak* 


B. 


N 


Topic 
Decemviri. 


Tribunes.  Second  talk 
on  a  comparison  of 
Roman  and  U.  S. 
officers. 

jEdiles. 

Intermarriage  of 
classes. 


Corrections  by  Students 
Difference  between 
may    and    can    ex- 
plained by  the  chair, 
double  subject. 
Fact  not  true,  directed 
to  open   book  and 
look  it  up,  "from" 
instead  of  "off." 


Several  favorable  comments  by  members  on  this  method  of 
learning  History.  Responsibility  devolves  on  the  individual  stu- 
dent. Plea  for  each  to  respond  for  the  honor  of  the  section. 


F Comitia  Tributa  Ple- 

bis. 
B The  assemblies. 


H 


Games  and  festivals. 
Second  talk  on  an- 
cient and  modern 
athletics  (reports  his 
constant  use  of 
Myers'  History  at 
home —  commended 
by  the  chair) . 

Praetor. 


What  it  means  to 
found  a  nation,  illus- 
trated by  the  U.  S. 

Rights  of  plebeians. 


Slang  "kick"  object- 
ed to. 
Double  subject. 


Chairman  reproved  by 
student  for  saying 
"git "for  "get." 

Discussion  of  "found" 
and  "  discover." 


SAMPLES  OF  THE  MINUTES       159 

Speaker  Topic  Corrections  by  Students 

M Not  prepare  d — an 

excuse —  reports 
after  school. 

R Police    regulations. 

Second  talk  on  the 
dictator. 

I ^diles. 

J Rex  sacrorum,  priests 

and    augurs. 
Adjourned. 

Secretary,  I.  B. 

The  grammatical  mistakes  were  all  cor- 
rected by  students  rising  from  the  floor. 
The  entire  lesson — twenty-five  talks — was 
managed  without  a  direction  from  the 
teacher. 

For  February  9th  the  assignment,  taken 
down  by  students  in  their  small  assign- 
ment books,  was  recorded  in  the  minutes. 

Write  short  paragraph  themes  on  two  of  the  following : 

(a)  How  did  the  Romans  get  their  first  paid  standing  army  f 

(b)  Tell  the  story  of  the  first  Gallic  Invasion. 

(c)  Describe  the  organization  of  the  Latin  Confederacy. 

Chairman  M 

Readers  Themes  Corrections 

C (a)  and  (b).         Mispronounced  "Allia," 

chairman  called  F for 

position. 

B (a)  and  (b).       Point  in  or  on  river   settled, 

criticism  of  text  as  suggest- 
ing naval  battle  on  the  river. 


160  THE  HISTORY  CLUB 

Readers  Themes  Corrections 

W (b)  and  (c).  " Perticular,"  urged  not  to 

take  wording  of  book.  Chair- 
man speaks  of  plagiarism. 

S (b)  and  (c).  Called  down  for  not  reading 

loud  enough  —  speaking  of 
Romans,  they  not  she,  mis- 
pronounced "envoys." 

R (a)  and  (c).  Criticised  for  not  announcing 

subject.  Mispronounced 
"Allia." 

Chairman   makes  the  suggestion  that    members  read  more 
slowly  and  look  up  as  they  read. 

F (a)  and  (c).        Very  painfully  timid — had  to 

be  coaxed,  poor  reader. 

T reproved  for  chewing  gum;  ordered  by  chair  to  put 

it  in  waste  paper  basket.    Chair  reproved  for  "  why-a." 

One  day  when  maps  were  night  work, 
the  talks  were  on  any  historical  subject 
whatsoever.  Such  topics  as  "  Macaulay's 
Lays  of  Ancient  Rome,"  "The  Value 
of  Historical  Novels,"  "  Organization  of 
the  Army  of  the  United  States  as  Com- 
pared with  the  Roman  Army  "  (given  by 
a  boy  in  the  military  corps),  "  The  Greek 
and  Roman  History  Classes,"  "  Different 
Kinds  of  Religions,"  "  Dress  in  Ancient 
Times,"  "  The  Last  Days  of  Pompeii," 
etc.,  showed  a  lively  interest  in  history  in 
general.  On  another  map  day  there  was 


SAMPLES  OF  THE  MINUTES       161 

a  spirited  debate  between  patricians  and 
plebeians,  as  espoused  by  the  class. 

In  talking  about  outside  reading  it  was 
a  common  occurrence  to  "  rise  to  a  point 
of  order  "  and  question  facts.  The  chair- 
man referred  the  two  disputants  to  their 
respective  authorities  and  had  the  point 
cleared  up.  Sometimes  there  were  dis- 
cussions about  opening  books,  about 
sneaking  out  of  the  work,  etc.,  during 
which  the  speakers  struck  straight  from 
the  shoulder.  It  was  the  custom  for  every- 
body to  participate  in  the  talks,  even  the 
most  timid  and  the  dullest.  The  members 
of  the  club  were  ashamed  not  to  take  part, 
but  we  know  the  time  when  they  were 
not  ashamed  to  fail  openly  in  a  recitation. 

Two  boys  brought  gavels  to  class  as 
soon  as  we  organized:  one,  a  miniature 
croquet  mallet;  the  other,  a  rough-hewn 
gavel.  We  used  the  first  in  Club  A  and 
the  second  in  Club  B.  If  they  could 
speak,  those  miniature  gavels  would  tell 
a  tale  of  animal  spirits  restrained;  of 
courteous  dealings,  of  discipline,  of  re- 
gard for  the  rights  of  others;  of  more 
11 


162 


THE  HISTORY  CLUB 


attention  to  position  in  class,  to  behavior; 
of  war  against  chewing  gum  and  chatter- 
ing; —  against  any  of  the  bad  habits  that 
make  classroom  work  a  trial  to  the  poor 
disciplinarian.  Who  did  it?  The  stu- 
dents through  the  gavel.  Vital  moral 
questions  sometimes  came  up  and  were 
settled  by  the  students  themselves,  and 
always  sanely. 

The  minutes  of  the  outside  reading 
registered  the  student's  name,  the 
authority,  the  topic,  and  mistakes.  For 
example  : 


March    29:    Outside    Reading    on 
Punic  War. 


Chairman^ 

Speaker  Authority 

B Livy. 

C.B..       Gilman. 
C Gilman. 

F...  Gilman. 


H... 

H... 
R.. 


Morris. 


Topic 

Hannibal. 
Carthage. 
Hamilcar  and  his 

sons. 
Hasdrubal. 


Purpose    in    at- 
tacking Sagun- 
tum. 
Polybius.  Character   of 

Hannibal. 

Haaren     and      Scipio  Africanus. 
Poland. 


the    Second 


Corrections 


Double  sub- 
ject. 

Facts  slightly 
mixed. 


Talks  too  fast. 


A  VISIT  TO  THE  HISTORY  CLUB  163 

A  VISIT  TO  THE  HISTORY  CLUB 

After  the  students  are  seated,  they 
copy  the  assignment  for  the  next  day. 
Then,  with  "  Harold,  you  may  preside  to- 
day! "  the  teacher  rises  and  goes  to  a  seat 
in  the  back  of  the  room.  Harold  takes 
the  place  at  the  desk,  picks  up  the  gavel 
and  calls  the  club  to  order. 

"We  will  now  have  talks  on  Roman 
life,"  he  says. 

Three  boys  rise  simultaneously.  "  Mr. 
President!"  comes  from  three  throats. 

"  Mr.  Lee,"  says  the  chairman,  des- 
ignating the  smallest  boy. 

Ned  Lee  moves  up  beside  the  teacher's 
desk  and  faces  the  class. 

"  The  present  century  is  not  the  only  time 
of  bribery,"  he  begins  in  a  well-modulated 
voice.  "  It  existed  in  the  time  of  the  Romans 
and  was  just  as  bad,  if  not  worse,  then.  The 
governors  of  provinces  bribed  the  voters  to 
obtain  the  office  and,  when  the  term  was  ended, 
bribed  the  judge  who  tried  him " 

"  Mr.  President,  I  rise  to  a  point  of 


164  THE  HISTORY  CLUB 

order.  He's  speaking  of  '  governors.'    It 
ought  to  be  '  them.'  " 

" — Tried  them.  They  also  got  quite  a  for- 
tune to  last  them  to  the  end  of  their  lives. 
After  the  Second  Punic  War  a  law  was  passed 
forbidding  bribery,  but  as  long  as  rich  men 
were  willing  to  buy  votes  and  the  people  to 
sell  them  there  was  little  use  for  such  a  law. 
Wilkins  in  his  '  Classical  Antiquities '  says 
bribery  existed  until  the  end  of  the  Roman 
Empire." 

A  tall  young  fellow  comes  next.  His 
clear,  ringing  voice  and  pleasing  address 
are  the  result  of  constant  practice  in  speak- 
ing to  the  class. 

"  Although  the  slaves  were  held  in  contempt 
by  their  masters,  yet  the  masters  seemed  to 
hold  it  an  honor  to  give  the  slave  his  name. 
Say,  for  instance,  if  a  slave's  name  was  John 
Smith  and  he  was  owned  by  Mr.  Brown,  the 
slave's  full  name  would  then  be  John  Smith 
Brown.  If  Mr.  Brown  would  sell  the  slave  to 
Mr.  Black,  another  change  in  name  would 
occur.  The  slave  would  now  be  called  John 


A  VISIT  TO  THE  HISTORY  CLUB  165 

Smith  Brown  Black.  This  method  afforded  a 
way  of  finding  the  character  of  a  slave,  as  he 
could  be  traced  back  by  his  names." 

"Mr.  President!" 

Not  a  moment  is  lost  before  the  next 
speaker  begins. 

"  My  authority  is  Oilman. 

"  When  the  Romans  first  built  their  houses, 
they  built  only  one  room,  which  was  called  the 
*  atrium,'  or  *  darkened  chamber/  This  room 
was  called  the  darkened  chamber  on  account 
of  the  smoke  on  the  walls,  which  came  from 
the  fire  trying  to  find  its  way  to  a  hole  in  the 
roof.  This  hole  was  used  to  admit  light,  and 
when  it  rained,  the  water  would  be  collected 
in  a  cistern  in  the  floor.  At  the  entrance  of 
the  '  atrium '  was  a  vestibule  and  in  the  vesti- 
bule a  threshold  which  would  make  the  person 
who  stepped  on  it  unlucky.  Adjoining  the  ves- 
tibule was  a  small  room  in  which  lived  a  porter. 
When  any  one  wanted  to  announce  their 
arrival •• 

"Mr.  President!" 

When  recognized,  the  speaker  makes  a 


166  THE  HISTORY  CLUB 

correction.    "  '  Any  one  '  is  singular,"  he 
says. 

Hardly  are  the  words  out  of  his  mouth, 
than  the  boy  in  front  continues: 

" — His  arrival.  If  any  one  wanted  to  an- 
nounce his  arrival,  he  would  make  a  noise  with 
a  knocker  on  the  door.  When  the  visitor  went 
into  the  chamber,  the  porter  would  say  either 
'  cave  canem/  which  means  '  beware  of  the 
dog/  or  '  salve/  which  means  welcome. 

"  The  Romans  also  had  a  code  of  signs, 
which  told  the  happenings  of  the  house.  When 
a  chaplet  was  put  outside,  an  heir  had  been 
born ;  but  if  the  sign  was  some  cypress  in  pots, 
it  meant  death.  When  laurel  was  seen  on 
the  door,  it  meant  that  a  marriage  was  being 
celebrated,  and  when  torches  and  lamps  were 
lighted,  there  was  great  joy  in  the  household." 

"  Mr.  President,  may  I  speak?  " 
Acknowledged    by    the    chairman,    an 

eager  little  boy  steps  to  the  front  of  the 

room  and  tells  a  good  story. 

"  The  family  is  believed  to  have  been  the 
most  important  factor  in  the  Roman  state.  The 
clan  grew  from  the  family,  the  tribe  from 


A  VISIT  TO  THE  HISTORY  CLUB  167 

the  clan,  and  the  state  from  the  tribe.  The 
father  had  complete  power  over  his  family. 
They  were  free  to  do  as  they  liked,  when  the 
father  died  or  freed  them.  The  son,  however, 
was  above  the  power  of  his  father,  as  long  as 
he  held  public  office.  A  good  example  of  this 
is  the  following: — 

"  During  the  Second  Punic  War,  Fabius 
Cunctatus  was  sent  to  serve  under  his  son,  who 
was  consul  for  that  year.  When  the  son  of 
Fabius  went  out  to  meet  Fabius  senior,  the 
father  rode  past  eleven  lictors.  The  son 
sternly  ordered  him  to  dismount,  which  he 
immediately  did,  saying,  '  I  only  wished  to  see, 
my  son,  whether  you  remembered,  as  you 
ought,  that  you  were  a  Roman  consul ! ' ' 

No  sooner  has  the  last  speaker  taken 
his  seat,  than  five  students  are  on  their 
feet.  The  chairman  rapidly  designates 
the  order  in  which  they  are  to  take  the 
floor. 

"  Mr.  Charlton,"  he  announces. 

Charlton  gives  a  straight-forward  ac- 
count of  Roman  funerals.  These  talks, 
which  are  quoted  here,  were  actually 
written  down  as  they  were  given.  We 


168  THE  HISTORY  CLUB 

looked  over  them  carefully  to  see  if  they 
were  the  same  as  given  and  have  used  the 
written  accounts  that  tallied  with  the 
spoken. 

So  Charlton  begins : 

"  The  Roman  Funeral  or  Procession  was 
perhaps  one  of  the  most  sumptuous  affairs 
of  its  kind  the  world  has  ever  known.  A  poor 
Roman,  of  course,  was  subject  only  to  such 
treatment  as  was  necessary.  Upon  death,  he 
was  either  cremated  or  buried,  as  the  circum- 
stances demanded.  Rich  Romans  only  were 
cremated,  as  this  was  the  privilege  of  the  rich. 
When  a  wealthy  Roman  died,  his  body  was 
turned  over  to  the  undertakers,  who  washed 
and  dressed  it  and  laid  it  out  in  a  very  conspic- 
uous position  on  the  couch,  the  feet  usually 
being  toward  the  door. 

"  The  funeral  was  held  at  night,  as  it  was 
believed,  according  to  one  of  the  writers  of  that 
day,  that  night  was  the  time  of  rest  and  as 
death  is  eternal  rest — in  consequence,  this  was 
practiced.  At  the  head  of  the  procession  were 
torch  carriers  and  heralds.  Then  came  dancers 
and  even  jugglers.  They  were  followed  by 
the  corpse,  mourners,  slaves,  and  others. 


A  VISIT  TO  THE  HISTORY  CLUB  169 

"  On  arriving  at  the  burial-place  the  friends 
encircled  the  place  of  cremation " 

"Would   that   be    a   'burial-place'?" 
questioned  the  chairman. 

"  The  body  was  cremated  in  two  different 
ways.  One  way  was  by  digging  a  ditch  about 
three  by  two  and  a  half,  in  which  were  placed 
fuel  and  spices,  and  then  the  body.  Another 
method  was  by  building  a  funeral  pile,  which 
was  constructed  of  the  best  of  wood.  On  this 
the  body  was  placed,  together  with  other  acces- 
sories. 

"  After  cremation  the  remains  were  gathered 
up  and  placed  in  an  urn,  which  afterwards 
was  placed  in  a  vault,  similar  to  those  of  the 
present  day.  Upon  return  from  the  funeral, 
the  relatives  and  friends  partook  of  a  sump- 
tuous meal,  then  they  continued  to  mourn  for  a 
period  of  from  three  to  six  months.  At  inter- 
vals they  lit  sacred  lights  for  the  benefit  of 
the  departed  souls." 

A   little  chap   in  a   big  white   collar 
follows. 


170  THE  HISTORY  CLUB 

"  Members  of  the  club,  the  book  that  I  am 
on  for  is  '  Zigzag  Journeys  in  Classic  Lands/ 
by  Butterworth.  It  is  about  a  class  that  is 
travelling  over  most  of  the  world.  The  part 
I  was  reading  is  where  they  went  to  Milan. 
It  was  at  one  time  the  capital  of  Italy.  The 
most  famous  building  is  the  cathedral.  It  has 
taken  centuries  to  build  it.  There  are  seven 
thousand  statues  and  over  a  thousand  bas- 
reliefs " 

"  Mr.  President,  isn't  that  s  silent  like 
bd  relief?  "    A  boy  has  risen  to  his  feet. 
"  Yes,"  says  the  chairman. 

" — Bas-relief,"  continues  the  boy.  "  It  has 
been  decorated  by  statues  and  pictures  by 
Canova,  Michael  Angelo,  and  Raphael." 

The  next  speaker  is  a  young  student 
who  has  tried  hard  to  develop  the  historical 
sense. 

"  My  topic,"  he  begins,  "  was  discussed. 
May  I  speak  of  what  I  learned  this  year?  " 

The  chairman  gives  permission. 

"  Of  all  the  things  I  have  learned  this  year, 
one  lesson  stands  out  eminently,  and  that  is  the 


A  VISIT  TO  THE  HISTORY  CLUB  171 

realization  of  the  great  field  of  knowledge 
there  is  to  be  learned.  When  I  began  to  study 
history,  I  thought  all  that  was  necessary  was 
to  get  what  there  was  in  the  text-book  and  I 
would  know  ancient  history.  But  the  more  I 
studied,  the  more  I  came  to  realize  that  the 
text-book  is  only  a  skeleton  of  ancient  history. 
In  a  text  I  got  only  a  number  of  bare  facts, 
which  often  seem  impossible,  due  to  the  lack 
of  sufficient  explanation  to  make  them  clear  or 
vivid.  Therefore,  in  order  to  obtain  a  fair 
knowledge  of  ancient,  or  any  other,  history,  a 
student  must  read  different  accounts  of  the 
same  subject  and  build  up  a  full  account.  You 
will  very  often  find  that  historians  differ  on  the 
same  subject.  To  form,  an  opinion  of  such, 
we  must  read  the  opinions  of  many  more 
historians. 

"It  is  the  same  in  other  studies.  People 
ignorant  of  literature %  will  imagine  they  be- 
come literary  by  reading  a  few  masterpieces. 
But  when  they  once  look  into  this  great  field 
of  literature,  they  find  themselves  completely 
lost.  They  can  not  say  which  style  of  writ- 
ing is  finest,  because  there  are  so  many  they 
have  not  read.  They  can  not  pass  fair  com- 
parative judgment  on  the  construction  and 


THE  HISTORY  CLUB 

ideas  of  a  book,  because  there  are  so  many 
books  on  the  same  subject  that  they  have  not 
read.  As  a  consequence  these  difficulties  urge 
them  to  make  themselves  acquainted  with  more 
authors  and  their  works.  And  the  more  they 
read,  the  less  they  find  they  know." 

RESULTS 

These  few  talks  are  a  fair  sample  of  the 
talks  that  followed.  Every  one  took  part 
>and  the  work  was  punctuated  with  con- 
tradictions of  one  another,  with  tracing 
back  to  authorities,  with  discussions  about 
parliamentary  law,  with  occasional  ap- 
peals to  the  teacher,  who  usually  threw  the 
decision  on  the  shoulders  of  the  chairman 
and  the  club  at  large, — for  that  is  the 
object  of  the  club,  to  help  the  students 
to  teach  themselves. 

Constantly,  the  presiding  officer  was  on 
guard  to  get  the  best  from  the  class,  by 
such  directions  as,  "  Speak  louder," 
"  Look  your  audience  in  the  eye,"  "  Speak 
more  slowly,"  "  Take  a  better  position, 
class,"  even  "  Raise  the  window,  Ritchie," 
when  he  noticed  a  yawn.  He  had  seen  the 


RESULTS  173 

teacher  do  that  many  times  with  the  ex- 
planation that  pure  air  is  absolutely 
necessary  for  good  brain  work. 

This  sample  lesson  has  been  taken  from 
the  work  with  a  badly-assorted  class, 
which  came  from  all  sorts  of  schools,  with 
•all  sorts  of  abominable  habits  of  study. 
The  reader  can  not  fail  to  notice  the  im- 
provement in  directness,  in  sticking  to  the 
subject,  in  vitalizing  facts ;  he  can  not  help 
but  see  that  there  is  a  growing  conscious- 
ness of  the  value  of  good  grammar,  of 
convincing  address.  He  will  also  see  that 
there  is  a  love  of  the  work  for  the  work's 
sake,  that  courtesy  is  developed  towards 
one  another,  that  students  acquire  self- 
reliance  that  enables  them  to  carry  on 
their  history  reading  alone  with  profit. 

In  conclusion,  let  us  urge  on  others  the 
introduction  of  the  club  method,  if  only 
for  occasional  use.  Make  history  a  living, 
enjoyable  thing  and  the  history  period 
will  be  looked  forward  to  with  eagerness 
and  finished  with  regret.  The  club 
method  brings  a  moral  and  mental  stimu- 
lus into  the  life  of  every  boy  and  every 
girl.  One  of  the  greatest  results  of  such 


174  THE  HISTORY  CLUB 

a  system  of  self-teaching  is  strengthening 
of  character.  The  Hon.  Ben  B.  Lindsay, 
the  "  Children's  Judge  "  of  Denver,  says: 

"  In  order  to  *  train  up  a  child  in  the  way 
he  should  go,*  we  must  work  along  two  def- 
inite lines.  First,  we  must  equip  the  child 
with  such  moral  efficiency  that  when  he  is 
beset  by  some  temptation  he  will  not  need  any 
restraint  except  that  restraint  which  is  self- 
imposed.  Second,  we  must  improve  economic 
conditions  so  as  to  limit  the  pressure  brought 
about  by  temptation." 

The  former  is  the  work  of  the  school. 
Any  method  that  develops  initiative,  self- 
reliance,  self-control,  and  will  power  is 
equipping  the  child  with  moral  efficiency. 

"  One  of  two  things  seems  fairly  plain," 
says  Judge  Lindsay  further:  "  either  we  must 
revise  our  ideas  of  what  is  to  be  exacted  from 
the  public  schools,  or  we  must  reorganize  the 
schools  upon  a  very  different  and  much  broader 
and  more  expensive  basis.  If  education  is  to 
be  made  not  merely  a  period  of  schooling,  not 
even  a  preparatory  course  for  the  duties  of 
life,  but  part  of  life  itself,  it  is  evident  to  even 


SUMMARY  175 

a  cursory  observer  that  the  profession  of  the 
teacher  is  shortly  to  be  regarded  quite  as 
seriously  as  that  of  the  physician  or  lawyer. 
There  must  be  many  more  classes  and  in- 
structors who  are  specialists  in  the  subjects 
with  which  they  deal.  Education  must  be  made 
so  fascinating  that  compulsory  school  laws 
will  be  anomalies." 

The  club  method  popularizes  history! 
Parliamentary  procedure  is  a  part  of 
life  in  the  world. 

SUMMARY 

Chapter  IX  presents  the  club  method, 
in  which  students  give  their  own  reports 
and  judge  their  own  work  and  theories. 
The  new  education  does  not  regard  the 
classroom  as  a  place  for  rigid  repressive 
discipline,  inflicted  by  the  teacher,  but 
as  a  place  where  the  powers  of  the  stu- 
dent, moral  as  well  as  mental,  are  in- 
creased. The  only  discipline  that  will 
help  in  later  life  is  self-imposed  dis- 
cipline:j  that  is,  self-control.  This  chapter 
asserts,  then,  that  egoism  is  justifiable 
in  students.  Each  student  has  the  right  to 
build  up  his  own  personality  and  should 


176  THE  HISTORY  CLUB 

be  aided.  Parliamentary  procedure  not 
only  acquaints  with  parliamentary  law, 
but  brings  out  a  regard  for  the  rights  of 
others,  responsibility,  the  call  of  duty, 
work  for  work's  sake  and  self -inflicted 
punishment.  The  chapter  tells  how  the 
students  regarded  the  club;  the  sample 
minutes  show  the  actual  corrections  in 
English  and  history;  the  visit  to  the  club 
period  gives  a  practical  sample  lesson. 
Through  imitation  poor  students  learn  to 
improve  in  their  speech;  at  the  recognition 
of  improvement  from  their  classmates, 
they  redouble  their  efforts.  Commenda- 
tion from  classmates  means  more  to  the 
average  student  than  commendation  from 
the  teacher.  There  comes  a  mastery  of  the 
technique  of  study,  the  petty  things  like 
spelling,  reading,  writing,  etc.,  that  make 
or  mar  the  work.  Attention  is  increased 
by  self-government,  therefore,  memory  is 
keener.  Positive  qualities  replace  the 
negative;  ease,  self-reliance,  self-control, 
courtesy  f  obedience,  originality,  and 
initiative  are  developed.  The  improve- 
ment in  the  structure  of  English  is 
marked.  Both  moral  and  mental  value  of 
the  club  idea  is  inestimable. 


CHAPTER  X 

ORGANIZING  A  GOVERNMENT  AS  A  CLASS 
EXERCISE 

JAMES  McCREA,  former  President  of 
the  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  at  the  Forty- 
Sixth  Founder's  Day  celebration  at 
Lehigh  University  urged  the  establish- 
ment of  a  course  on  national,  state,  and 
municipal  government,  as  a  new  depart- 
ment in  American  colleges.  He  said: 

"  Since  this  university  was  founded,  the 
nation  has  increased  from  thirty  millions  to 
ninety  millions  of  people,  governed,  however, 
to  all  intents  and  purposes  in  the  same  manner 
and  by  the  same  machinery.  As  a  result  there 
has  grown  a  great  unrest  in  the  land.  As 
there  was  in  1865  a  shortage  of  young  men 
being  scientifically  educated,  so  is  there  to-day 
a  shortage  of  young  men  being  taught  the 
principles  and  science  of  practically  ad- 
ministering a  republican  form  of  government." 

At  various  institutes  throughout  the 
country  it  has  been  constantly  advocated 

12  177 


178     ORGANIZING  A  GOVERNMENT 

that  more  attention  should  be  paid  to 
matters  of  government  in  the  public 
schools.  Self-government  among  stu- 
dents, the  honor  system,  and  schemes  like 
the  George  Junior  Republic  are  attempts 
to  regard  the  boy  or  the  girl  as  a  small 
citizen  with  the  responsibilities  and  privi- 
leges of  such.  The  Boy  Scout  movement 
is  a  popular  organization  to  teach  obedi- 
ence and  preparation.  By  furnishing  a 
legitimate  outlet,  it  civilizes  the  gang 
spirit,  which  Dr.  Luther  H.  Gulick  of  the 
Russell  Sage  Foundation  says  is  not  only 
natural,  but  usable  in  education, — as  in 
playground  activities.  Some  6500  boys 
and  300  girls  of  Baltimore  are  being  de- 
veloped into  good  citizens  by  the  Public 
Athletic  League,  in  which  trained  experts 
in  child  psychology  aim  to  develop  chil- 
dren by  directing  their  play  along  intelli- 
gent and  moral  lines,  by  making  the  chil- 
dren good  losers  as  well  as  good  winners. 
A  street  inspector  of  the  Department  of 
Public  Works  in  Philadelphia  has  thought 
out  a  new  way  to  win  the  cooperation  of 
school  children  in  the  movement  for  clean 
streets.  A  button  bearing  the  slogan, 


ORGANIZING  A  GOVERNMENT     170 

"For  Clean  Streets,  Philadelphia,"  is 
awarded  as  a  badge  of  honor  to  children 
who  do  something  to  improve  the  condi- 
tion of  the  city  streets.  This  is  working 
for  preventive  street  cleaning.  It  is  tak- 
ing the  children  into  close  sympathy  with 
the  vital  work  of  a  big  city.  It  was  the 
idea  of  a  woman.  The  wearers  of  the 
buttons,  although  under  age  politically, 
actually  become  volunteer  inspectors  and 
real  welfare  workers.  Such  matters  of 
government  should  be  discussed  in  the 
schools. 

Documents  like  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  and  The  Constitution  are 
vitalized  if  taken  in  class  as  the  frame- 
work, or  germ,  of  dramatic  work.  A 
government  in  actual  line  with  our  own 
American  government  can  be  worked  out 
by  teacher  and  pupils  together.  Various 
characters  can  be  assigned:  Benjamin 
Franklin,  Washington,  John  Adams, 
Madison,  Hamilton,  Jefferson,  and  others 
of  that  noble  band  who  helped  to  create 
a  government.  Such  work  necessitates 
close  study  of  the  documents  referred  to ; 
this  close  study  is  made  interesting  rather 


180    ORGANIZING  A  GOVERNMENT 

than  tedious  by  the  simple  suggestion  that 
the  parts  be  acted  out. 

To  encourage  thought,  a  new  govern- 
ment can  be  formed.  This  was  done  with 
such  enthusiasm  by  two  history  classes, 
that  we  take  pleasure  in  describing  it  in 
detail. 

School  is  not  apart  from  life:  it  is 
synonymous  with  life.  Modern  education 
has  taken  great  strides  in  recognizing  the 
boy,  not  as  a  creature  different  from  man, 
but  as  an  incipient  man,  best  served  if 
acquainted  with  the  problems  and  re- 
sponsibilities that  face  man. 

A  GOVERNMENT  IN  SEVEN  DAYS 

"  In  the  next  seven  days,"  we  are  speak- 
ing to  the  ancient  history  class, — "  let  us 
organize  a  government " 

Heads  nod  eagerly. 

" — Here  are  the  premises.  We  are  a 
band  of  2000  people,  left  by  chance  on  a 
desert  island.  We  are  thoroughly  up-to- 
date  in  all  our  needs,  and  a  good  fairy  will 
bring  the  things  of  civilization  to  us.  We 
wish  to  organize  a  government,  but 


GOVERNMENT  IN  SEVEN  DAYS    181 

also  wish  to  cut  loose  from  any  precon- 
ceptions of  government.  Do  not  get  out 
your  American  histories  to  study  the  Con- 
stitution.  Do  your  own  thinking. 

"  Club  A  and  Club  B  will  both  organize 
and  we  can  then  see  which  gets  the  better 
results." 

"  How  shall  we  start?  "  asks  a  thought- 
ful boy  eagerly. 

"  Let  us  look  over  the  whole  field  of 
government  for  to-morrow  and  bring  to 
class  a  list  of  all  the  forms  of  govern- 
ment; put  a  star  to  the  one  you  think 
would  best  serve  our  purpose;  and  out- 
line your  reasons  in  a  '  one-minute  talk/ 
In  class  we  can  hear  all  the  speeches  and 
then  vote  for  the  best  championed  form, 
which  we  shall  adopt." 

"Gee!  that's  great!"  one  boy  said  to 
another  as  they  went  out  of  the  room. 

For  the  following  seven  days  heated 
discussion  was  abundant  in  the  school. 
Several  fathers  told  us  that  their  boys 
had  dragged  out  of  them  all  they  knew 
of  municipal  government;  in  fact,  one 
father  admitted  that  he  was  clearly 


182     ORGANIZING  A  GOVERNMENT 

"  floored  "  by  the  intelligent  questions  of 
his  boy. 

The  warning  against  using  any  model, 
— even  the  United  States  Constitution, — 
was  to  prevent  their  copying  wholesale. 
We  wished  original  thinking,  as  much  as 
possible.  We  wished,  too,  to  see  how  our 
democratic  principles  were  grounded  in 
the  youth  of  the  city.  It  was  a  surprise  to 
find  the  altruistic,  the  practical,  and  the 
economic,  all  coming  to  the  fore. 

Coming  at  the  end  of  the  spring  term, 
the  scheme  offered  a  valuable  test  in  oral 
composition,  especially  in  extemporaneous 
speaking.  The  class  managed  it  entirely 
themselves ;  and  the  teacher  kept  full  notes 
of  the  proceedings.  It  is  these  notes  that 
we  reproduce  in  the  sample  lessons,  quot- 
ing the  speeches.  We  appointed  as  tem- 
porary chairman  the  quickest,  most  logical 
boy  in  the  class.  He  took  a  chair  in  front 
of  the  class.  We  handed  him  the  gavel. 

MEETING  I 

"  The  tribe  will  come  to  order,"  says 
the  chairman.  "  Our  business  to-day  is  to 
discuss  -forms  of  government,  on  which 


MEETING  183 

a  vote  will  be  taken  at  the  end  of  the 
period." 

"  Mr.  Chairman,  may  I  have  the  floor?  " 

"  Mr.  Winton." 

All  of  the  speakers  come  to  the  front 
of  the  room  and  address  the  class.  Winton 
steps  up. 

"  Brethren  and  sisters,"  he  begins,  "  only 
one  form  of  government  will  serve  our  pur- 
pose. That  is  social  democracy,  a  republican 
form  of  government  that  protects  more  fully 
the  individual.  I  suggest  it  because  (1)  its 
name  means  the  good  of  society,  (2)  we  must 
build  a  government  for  all  the  people,  (3)  we 
need  a  strong  foundation  for  a  good  structure. 
I  also  suggest  that  ladies  be  exempt  from 
government, — for  love  of  the  home  and  for 
rearing  their  families." 

The  chairman  remarks : 
"  Your  last  suggestion  was  out  of  order. 
We  are  discussing  kinds  of  government." 

"  Mr.  Chairman,"  says  a  second  speaker, 
"  I  favor  a  republican  form  of  government, 
with  power  in  a  head,  supported  by  an  assem- 


184     ORGANIZING  A  GOVERNMENT 

bly.  Hold  the  head  responsible,  keep  the  best 
men  in  office,  and  protect  from  dishonest 
dealings." 

A  third  is  on  the  floor. 

"  This  is  a  critical  time,  tribesmen ;  we  make 
a  government  to  abide  by  in  the  future.  Let  us 
get  the  right  kind,  and  go  slowly.  I  do  not 
believe  in  the  representative  form — Mr.  Chair- 
man, may  we  refute  ?  " 

"  Yes,"  answers  the  chairman. 

" — It  must  be  acquired  gradually.  I  think 
the  government  should  be  run  without  repre- 
sentatives, the  people  as  a  whole  serving  in 
convention.  Ignorant  people  can  be  trained  in 
the  work  of  government." 

The  chairman  speaks: 

"  Consider  not  only  now,  but  the  future 
when  we  shall  be  more  than  one  hundred 
times  as  big." 

Another  boy  comes  front. 

"  Has  pure  democracy  ever  existed? "  he 
asks.  "  The  Greeks  called  their  form  democ- 
racy, but  foreigners  and  slaves,  and  for  a  long 


MEETING  185 

time  the  common  people,  had  no  say.  We 
learned  about  that  with  Solon,  Draco,  and 
Clisthenes.  Even  to-day  in  the  United  States 
we  do  not  have  pure  democracy.  People  are 
paying  taxes  and  not  entitled  to  a  vote.  I 
mean  women.  Therefore,  I  think  for  the 
present  a  republican  form,  as  commonly  asso- 
ciated with  the  United'  States,  is  best" 

The  next  speaker  sketches  briefly  all 
the  forms  of  government  and  espouses 
the  constitutional  monarchy,  because  he 
thinks  that  the  barbarous  conditions  sur- 
rounding the  island  demand  "  a  strong 
hand  in  constant  control."  The  boy  ex- 
plains the  kinds  of  monarchy;  the  kinds 
of  oligarchy,  as  aristocracy,  plutocracy; 
the  variations  of  tyranny;  and  autocracy, 
despotism,  and  empire.  There  is  a  spirited 
discussion,  after  he  sits  down,  between 
two  boys  about  the  difference  between 
monarchy  and  empire. 

A  commission  of  five  men  is  recom- 
mended by  another  boy. 

After  every  one  in  the  class  has  spoken 
his  or  her  preference,  the  chairman  comes 
out  flatly  for  social  democracy,  pleading 


186    ORGANIZING  A  GOVERNMENT 

that  the  great  brotherhood  of  man  de- 
serves a  fair  trial.  In  concluding  he  ap- 
points two  tellers  to  pass  ballot  slips 
(pieces  of  paper)  and  directs  each  mem- 
ber to  write  his  preference  down  and  hand 
it  in.  When  the  vote  is  counted,  it  stands : 

Monarchy    11 

Social  Democracy 11111111111 

Republican  Representative  Form .  .11111 

Oligarchy 1 

Aristocracy 11 

"  Fellow  tribesmen,"  says  the  chair- 
man, "  the  form  of  social  democracy  has 
won.  This  means  that  all  the  people  rule 
and  they  look  after  the  interests  of  all  the 
people."  Then  the  chairman  looks  to- 
wards the  teacher,  who  rises  and  assigns 
the  next  lesson,  which  they  copy  in  their 
assignment  books, — outline  or  block  in 
the  main  features  of  the  social  democracy: 

After  school  two  boys  had  an  animated 
debate  on  the  republic  of  ancient  times 
versus  the  modern  republic.  The  class 
was  beginning  to  ask  why  instead  of 
swallowing  wholesale.  There  was  marked 
interest. 


MEETING  II  187 

MEETING  II — MAIN  DEPARTMENTS 

We  tabulate  some  of  the  suggestions: 

(I)  Head;  cabinet  of  5  men,  appointed  by 
the  head;   parliament  of   50  to   make   laws; 
judges. 

(II)  Head;  cabinet  of   10  to  make  laws; 
5  inspectors;  judges. 

(III)  Head  and  assistant  head;  cabinet  of 
5;  secretary;  treasurer;  commission  of  100  to 
make  laws;  judges. 

(IV)  President;  cabinet  of  5;  assembly  of 
50;  judges. 

(V)  Executive    board    of    10    men    elected 
directly  by  people;  cabinet;  supreme  court. 

(VI)  Archon;  cabinet;  assembly;  power  to 
elect  a  dictator. 

(VII)  General  manager;    board   of   mana- 
gers; assembly;  judges. 

In  the  speeches  that  followed,  it  was 
readily  seen  that  the  four-part  division  of 
VII  appealed  to  the  class.  The  chairman 
called  for  a  ballot,  which  was  cast  for  the 
business  plan  of  "  General  Manager." 
He  then  asked  for  a  discussion  of  depart- 


188     ORGANIZING  A  GOVERNMENT 

ments,  which  were  to  be  looked  after  by 
the  board  of  managers. 

The  chairman  resolves  the  meeting 
into  a  committee  of  the  whole. 

"  Mr.  Chairman,"  says  a  young  busi- 
ness man,  "  we  have  to  coin  our  own 
money.  That  means  a  treasury." 

'  Yes,"  says  the  chairman,  as  he  writes 
it  on  the  board,  "  the  treasury! " 

"  We  must  regulate  commerce  and 
labor,"  speaks  up  another.  '  Why  not 
combine  the  post  office  with  it?  It  is  a 
form  of  labor  and  implies  interchange, 
like  commerce." 

The  chairman  calls  for  the  opinion  of 
the  class  after  each  suggestion.  They 
agree  to  the  above. 

Winton  is  upon  his  feet. 

"  A  tribe  on  another  island  may  make 
war,"  he  suggests;  "we  must  have  our 
army  and  navy,  Mr.  Chairman." 

"What  else?  "is  urged. 

"I  suggest,"  says  a  quiet  lad,  "that 
we  regard  health  as  a  department,  both  of 
the  individual  health  and  health  of  the 
community  in  a  moral  as  well  as  a  physical 
way.  Public  safety  is  health  in  *  The 


MEETING  II  189 

Body  Politic',  as  they  say.  Pure  food 
and  all  that  would  come  under  it,  too." 

"  Let  us  have  a  theatre  owned  by  the 
government  and  get  good  shows,"  sug- 
gests another. 

"  And  why  not  have  the  government 
regulate  moving  pictures  and  education 
in  the  same  department?"  says  a  girl. 
"  Education  and  amusements  ought  to  go 
together.  Education  ought  to  be  more 
amusing  and  amusements  more  educa- 
tional,"— which  was  not  half  bad! 

The  result  of  the  second  day's  work 
was  as  follows : 

General  manager — elected  directly  by  the 
people. 

Board  of  assistant  managers — elected  di- 
rectly by  people,  one  to  be  elected  a  chief 
assistant  to  replace  general  manager,  if 
necessary. 

Commerce,  labor,  and  post  office. 

Treasury. 

Resources :  forests,  agriculture,  mines,  etc. 

Army  and  navy. 

Health  and  public  safety. 

Education  and  amusements. 


190    ORGANIZING  A  GOVERNMENT 

Assembly — elected  directly  by  the  people, 
according  to  population. 

Judges  3  or  5 — elected  by  direct  vote  of  the 
people. 

MEETING  III — QUALIFICATIONS 

Each  student  has  outlined  his  personal 
views.  There  are  heated  discussions  on 
length  of  term,  age  of  the  incumbent,  and 
whether  native-born  or  naturalized.  "  Ten 
years  "  is  objected  to  as  "  too  long  "  and 
"an  unfair  monopoly";  "two  years"  is 
objected  to  as  "  not  enough  time  to  work 
out  policies."  Finally  they  attach  to  the 
length  of  term  re-election  and  recall.  The 
term  of  the  board  of  managers  is  made 
longer  than  the  general  manager's  to 
allow  policies  to  run  over  from  one  ad- 
ministration to  the  next  and  to  prevent 
their  being  killed  by  a  new  party,  coming 
into  power. 

"  Mir.  Chairman,"  comes  a  pointed 
query,  "  shall  we  let  the  women  vote?  I 
move  that  the  girls  have  full  rights  of 
citizenship." 

"  Second  it,"  cries  out  a  girl. 


MEETING  III  191 

"  All  in  favor  of  extending  to  the  girls 
the  rights  of  citizenship  say  '  ayel ' 

"  Aye!  "  from  the  majority. 

"No?" 

"  Nol  "  from  one  lonely  boy. 

"  The  ayes  have  it! "  says  the  chairman. 
"Woman's  suffrage  for  us!" 

"  Mr.  Chairman,"  says  a  young  man, 
"  we  must  have  a  name.  I  move  we  call 
this  'The  Social  Test!'" 

Says  the  chair:  "  That's  a  good  sug- 
gestion. Any  others? " 

In  a  few  minutes  we  have  "  Lonely 
Isle,"  "  Florencia,"  "  Good  Hope,"  "  Isle 
of  Men,"  and  "  Nova  Terra  "  (Latin  for 
new  land) . 

"  Nova  Terra  "  wins.  The  boy  who 
suggested  the  name  rises  and  speaks  of 
the  people  as  "  Nova  Terrans." 

All  of  this  is  done  with  absolute 
courtesy,  regard  for  the  opinions  of  others, 
and  desire  to  do  their  own  thinking.  We 
do  not  claim  anything  wonderfully 
brilliant  in  the  kind  of  government 
evolved,  but  it  was  remarkably  noticeable 
in  the  classroom  that  boys  who  were  lazy 
thinkers  were  waking  up,  timid  ipeakers 


192    ORGANIZING  A  GOVERNMENT 

were    losing   self-consciousness,    and   ill- 
bred  pupils  were  acquiring  self-control. 

MEETING  IV THE  CONSTITUTION 

There  was  a  delightfully  original  word- 
ing to  most  of  the  preambles ;  only  one  had 
a  glimmer  of  our  own  "  We,  the  people." 

We  quote  one  of  the  most  direct : 

"  We,  the  inhabitants  of  the  island  of  Nova 
Terra,  do  indorse  with  our  signatures  the  fol- 
lowing form  of  government  on  this,  the  ninth, 
day  of  June,  nineteen  hundred  and  eleven/' 

We  shall  quote  the  articles  from  a 
number  of  papers,  to  show  the  brief 
statements. 

Article  I. — This  country  shall  be  known  as 
Nova  Terra  and  the  people  as  Nova  Terrans. 

Article  II. — All  people,  men  and  women, 
shall  have  the  power  to  vote,  provided  they  are 
twenty-one  years  of  age. 

Article  III. — We  adopt  the  initiative,  refer- 
endum, and  recall. 

Article  IF. — Power  shall  lodge  in  a  general 
manager;  a  board  of  managers;  an  assembly; 
and  3  or  5  judges. 


MEETING  IV  193 

Article  V. — The  general  manager  must  be 
35  years  old,  be  native-born,  have  a  good  edu- 
cation, and  serve  four  years. 

Article  VI. — The  board  of  managers  shall 
consist  of  the  following  departments:  com- 
merce, labor,  and  post  office;  treasury;  army 
and  navy ;  health  and  public  safety ;  resources ; 
education  and  amusements. 

The  assistant  manager  must  be  35  years  old, 
naturalized,  a  specialist  in  his  work,  and  serve 
six  years. 

Article  VII. — The  judges  must  be  at  least 
40  years  of  age,  naturalized,  have  studied  law, 
and  serve  five  years. 

Article  VIII. — The  representatives  in  the 
assembly  shall  be  30  years  old,  be  educated  to 
a  degree,  be  naturalized,  and  serve  six  years, — 
%  going  out  every  2  years.  Every  100  people 
shall  have  a  representative. 

Article  IX.— All  officers  shall  be  elected 
directly  by  the  people. 

Young  Milton  concluded  his  preamble 
with  the  words,  "  We  have  started  out 

with  rather  a  simple  government,  which 
13 


194     ORGANIZING  A  GOVERNMENT 

will  grow  more  complicated  as  our  do- 
minions increase!" 

Club  B  has  organized  along  somewhat 
similar  lines,  with  a  head  instead  of  a 
general  manager.  They  call  themselves 
"  Freelanders "  of  the  island  "  Free 
Land."  Several  students  have  moved 
from  one  class  to  the  other  and  thus  have 
called  for  a  motion  to  naturalize  them. 
Another  boy  has  come  in  uninvited  and 
been  put  out  as  a  spy.  On  another  occa- 
sion when  speeches  are  in  order,  young 
women  from  the  Commercial  Department 
visit  the  meeting  to  see  if  they  can  take 
down  shorthand  notes.  They  are  accorded 
the  freedom  of  the  island  and  escorted  to 
front  seats, — all  without  a  word  from  the 
teacher. 

MEETING    V — ELECTION    OF    OFFICERS 

Nominations  are  next  in  order.  These 
are  balloted  for  and  run  through  very 
expeditiously,  much  to  the  credit  of  the 
temporary  chairman.  The  results  in 
Club  A  are  as  follows: 


MEETING  VI  195 

General  manager. — Matthew  (who  has  since 
carved  out  a  gavel  as  a  remembrance  of  "  Nova 
Terra  "). 

Board  of  managers. — Isabel,  Clarence, 
Percy,  Walter,  Joseph,  George. 

Judges. — Cecil,  Bertha,  Samuel. 

Representatives. — The  rest  of  the  class. 

The  room  is  then  divided  into  three 
sections:  on  the  extreme  right  in  vertical 
line  sit  the  judges;  in  the  middle,  the  six 
assistant  managers ;  on  the  left,  the  repre- 
sentatives. 

MEETING  VI INAUGURAL  ADDRESSES 

The  Nova  Terran  general  manager  has 
been  introduced  by  the  temporary  chair- 
man in  a  good  speech.  He  rises  to 
respond. 

"  I  thank  you,  Nova  Terrans,"  he  says  man- 
fully, "  for  the  honor  of  electing  me  general 
manager.  I  need  your  help.  It  is  with  me 
as  with  the  man  who  walks  with  a  staff:  I 
need  your  support.  We  must  act  in  harmony. 
Our  government  is  novel:  the  great  capitalist 


196     ORGANIZING  A  GOVERNMENT 

is  the  state;  we  mean  to  practice  a  practical 
socialism.  My  policy  for  myself  is  '  Toe 
the  mark ! ' ;  for  others  it  is  '  Equal  chances 
for  all!'" 

"  Mr.  General  Manager,"  speaks  one 
of  the  boys,  "I  move  that  we  give  a  ris- 
ing vote  to  the  temporary  chairman,  who 
has  carried  us  through  the  difficult  period 
of  organization." 

"  Second  it  1 "  flashes  another. 

"  All  in  favor  of  a  rising  vote  to  the 
temporary  chairman  may  rise." 

The  entire  class  has  quietly  risen. 

"  It  is  unanimous,"  says  the  presiding 
officer. 

The  temporary  chairman  acknowledges 
the  vote  of  appreciation  and  tells  how 
much  he  enjoyed  presiding,  because  he 
"  learned  what  a  hard  thing  it  is  to 
manage  and  to  get  all  the  business  done 
in  a  specified  time." 

Then  follow  speeches  from  the  manager 
of  commerce,  labor,  and  the  post-office  and 
from  the  manager  of  resources.  These 
have  all  been  worked  up  in  outline  for 


MEETING  VI  197 

"  one-minute  talks."     The  latter  says  in 
part: 

"  Fellow  countrymen,  my  election  was  a 
great  surprise,  as  I  am  only  a  naturalized 
foreigner.  It  shows  the  greatness  of  your 
hearts  to  take  me  into  your  brotherhood.  I 
purpose  guarding  the  resources, — coal,  forests, 
gas,  oil,  metals  of  all  kinds,  water.  Farmers 
are  to  be  fairly  treated,  not  like  the  plebeian  in 
ancient  Rome.  As  I  studied  farming  in  my 
youth  and  later  took  up  engineering,  I  feel 
that  I  can  serve  your  interests." 

The  manager  of  education  and  amuse- 
ments says  spiritedly: 

"  We  will  have  free  schools  from  the  kinder- 
garten to  the  university,  with  free  books. 
Every  boy  and  every  girl  shall  have  to  go  to 
school  up  to  a  certain  age.  We  will  also  use 
moving-picture  shows  for  teaching  purposes; 
we  shall  have  a  natural  park  for  recreation, 
with  a  lake  for  swimming  and  skating,  and 
band  concerts  in  the  summer.  We  will  also 
establish  a  government  theatre  with  cheap 
prices  and  good  plays." 


198    ORGANIZING  A  GOVERNMENT 

Says  the  manager  of  health  and  public 
safety: 

"  Fellow  Nova  Terrans,  I  shall  try  to  pay 
you  back  in  services.  (1)  The  island  is  sub- 
ject to  cold  winds,  so  I  will  order  all  houses 
made  to  defy  the  winds;  (2)  I  will  build  a 
public  hospital;  (3)  I  will  place  an  officer  at 
our  port  to  examine  newcomers  and  keep  out 
objectionable  ones;  (4)  I  will  establish  in  our 
city  a  corps  to  guard  life  and  property;  and 
(5)  I  will  do,  as  Dr.  Wiley  has  done  for  the 
United  States:  establish  an  inspection  of  pure 
food." 

The  manager  of  the  army  and  the  navy 
purposes  to  make  military  training  com- 
pulsory in  the  schools,  and  in  that  way 
raise  a  standing  army,  but  he  concludes 
with  an  appeal  for  peace. 

"  No  country  can  be  without  money,"  says 
the  manager  of  the  treasury;  "I  purpose  to 
start  a  mint  and  make  some  money.  I  hope  to 
be  honest,  and  will  not  allow  graft;  therefore, 
I  thank  you  for  your  faith  in  my  honesty." 


MEETING  VI  109 

Then  the  judges  promise  to  uphold 
law,  to  protect  all  people,  and  to  be  im- 
partial. The  chief  of  the  assembly 
pledges  himself: 

'  To  keep  order  and  to  have  all  deal- 
ings above-board  and  advantageous  to  the 
whole  country." 

The  other  club  elected  as  head  a  young 
woman  of  rare  mental  ability.  It  is  signifi- 
cant because  girls  were  in  the  minority. 
Her  address  we  quote : 

"  Fellow  citizens,  I  feel  keenly  the  honor, 
also  the  responsibility,  of  my  position.  As 
women,  we  have  not  been  represented  in 
politics.  We  are,  therefore,  all  the  more 
anxious  to  show  you  that  there  need  be  no 
regrets. 

"  I  stand  for  open,  above-board  dealing  and 
clean  politics. 

"  I  urge  you  to  remember  that  in  reality  this 
country  is  not  ruled  by  the  Head,  but  by  each 
of  you.  Therefore,  clean  politics  and  right 
conditions  depend  on  you. 

"  I  stand  for  order,  which  is  preferable  to 
confusion  and  anarchy. 


200     ORGANIZING  A  GOVERNMENT 

"  I  also  stand  for  peace  and  for  prosperity 
in  the  homes,  among  the  families,  as  well  as  in 
the  entire  nation. 

"  Let  us  live  the  Golden  Rule  and  labor  for 
the  real  Brotherhood  of  Man." 

MEETING  VII THE  FLAG 

At  the  last  meeting  both  clubs  voted  for 
colors,  the  Nova  Terrans  choosing  red 
and  white;  the  Freelanders,  crimson  and 


SLATE 


FLAG  DESIGN  Jos.  LUDIK 

slate.     Designs  of  flags  were  submitted 
by  all  the  students.     The  most  striking 


RESULTS  201 

were  ten  horizontal  bars  of  red  and  white ; 
a  red  cross  on  a  white  ground  with  In 
hoc  signo  vinces;  a  red  star  of  hope  on  a 
white  ground.  They  narrowed  down 


KOVA  TERRA 


WHITE 


FLAG  DESIGN  JACK  LOVB 

finally  to  the  two  designs  given  here.  An 
interruption  on  the  last  day  prevented 
the  deciding  vote. 


RESULTS 


"  Disregard  of  law  is  fast  becoming  an 
American  characteristic,"  reported  the 
committee  on  a  system  for  teaching  morals 


SOS     ORGANIZING  A  GOVERNMENT 

in  the  public  school,  when  the  National 
Educational  Association  met  in  San  Fran- 
cisco during  July,  1911,  It  urged  that 
the  tendencies  of  modern  life  be  met  by 
teaching  the  elemental  virtues  in  school. 
Tidiness,  self-sacrifice,  obedience,  patriot- 
ism, courage,  and  determination  must  be 
developed  in  pupils.  The  'relations  of  the 
individual  boy  and  girl  to  society,  to 
work,  and  to  government  must  be  taught ; 
also  a  study  of  the  family  as  the  basis  of 
society. 

How  greatly  the  ideal  of  education  has 
changed  in  the  last  fifty  years!  Then  it 
was,  "  Pour  in!  "  Now  it  is  not  so  much, 
"  Draw  out  knowledge,"  as  "  Develop  the 
faculties,"  so  that  the  student  can  teach 
himself.  Now  it  is:  Biuild  character  as 
well  as  mind,  body  as  well  as  character. 

The  school  boy  is  an  apprentice.  He 
meets  the  duties  and  problems  of  school  in 
the  same  spirit  in  which  he  will  meet  the 
trials  and  responsibilities  in  later  life.  As 
he  will  vote  then,  perhaps  hold  office,  so 
should  he  vote  now  and  hold  office. 

There  are  three  things  a  boy  has  to  do 
when  he  leaves  school :  First,  he  lives  in  a 


RESULTS  203 

community  under  a  government,  bounded 
by  law,  which  he  has  not  made  but 
nevertheless  has  to  obey.  He  mingles 
with  friends  and  business  acquaintances, 
among  whom  the  qualities  of  self -reliance, 
independence  of  thought,  courage, 
courtesy,  and  obedience  make  him  re- 
spected; or  the  opposite  qualities  bring 
dislike  and  failure.  In  the  third  place, 
he  owes  a  duty  to  himself  to  bring  out  the 
best  in  himself,  to  "  make  goodl  " 

How  can  we  develop  the  boy,  then,  so 
that  he  will  bring  satisfaction  to  himself, 
to  his  friends,  and  to  the  community? 

He  must  train  himself  to  do  his  own 
thinking  and  to  draw  his  own  conclusions ; 
he  must  learn  to  express  himself  easily  in 
clear,  effective  English;  he  must  store  up 
knowledge,  which  will  afford  enjoyment 
to  himself  and  to  others  as  well  as  profit ; 
he  must  understand  the  need  of  law  and 
the  general  working  of  institutions,  and 
be  iready  to  take  an  intelligent  part  in 
government. 

Organization  of  a  government  by  a 
class  in  class  has  proved  itself  a  splendid 
exercise  in  preparing  students,  particu- 


204  RESULTS 

larly  boys,  for  life,  for  (1)  it  appeals  to 
the  "gang"  spirit  in  the  boy;  (2)  it 
teaches  him  respect  for  his  fellows;  (3)  it 
helps  him  to  do  his  own  thinking,  prevent- 
ing blind  allegiance  to  party;  (4)  it  in- 
stills courtesy;  (5)  it  demands  obedience 
in  discipline;  (6)  it  develops  character,— 
initiative,  self-control,  courage,  determina- 
tion, leadership;  (7)  it  arouses  ambition 
to  win  for  the  sake  of  a  cause;  (8)  it  gives 
him  practice  in  extemporaneous  speech; 
(9)  it  familiarizes  him  with  parlia- 
mentary procedure;  (10)  it  teaches  him 
that  governmental  institutions  are  evolved 
to  meet  the  conditions  and  the  demands  of 
the  times  and  should  so  serve;  (11)  it 
makes  him  appreciate  the  multifarious 
interests  of  government ;  and  (12)  it  gives 
him  a  patriotic  pride  in  the  Constitution. 
All  these  results  were  brought  to  the 
fore  by  the  boys  and  girls  themselves. 
The  combination  of  oral  composition  with 
history  vitalized  the  work  in  history,  gave 
the  boys  and  girls  better  control  of  their 
powers,  and  trained  them  in  effective 
speech.  The  pupils  left  the  work  in 
organizing  a  government  with  a  hearty 


SUMMARY  205 

respect  for  law,  with  an  admiration  for 
law-makers,  and  with  an  intelligent 
appreciation  of  the  responsibilities  of 
citizenship. 

SUMMARY 

Chapter  X  gives  practical  details  about 
a  class  organization  of  government  that 
serves  as  an  excellent  test  in  extempora- 
eous  speaking  as  well  as  a  test  of  origi- 
nality of  ideas.  It  shows  how  students 
themselves  can  develop  all  the  qualities 
needed  to  win  in  the  world,.  Respect  for 
others,  quickness  of  wit,  practicality, 
shrewdness  of  judgment,  responsibility 
towards  environment,  and  individual  con- 
science are  all  developed.  Regard  for 
law  is  demonstrated,  but  the  mind  of  the 
student  at  the  same  time  is  critical  of  law, 
not  gullible  enough  to  swallow  all  law 
whole.  Man's  part  in  making  law  is 
brought  out.  The  plan  is  right  in  line 
with  the  movement  to  teach  good  citizen- 
\  ship  in  the  schools.  There  is  such  a  hearty 
enjoyment  in  the  whole  scheme  that  the 
weakest  is  led  unconsciously  to  assert  him- 
self and  to  grow  stronger  in  ideas  and 


206  SUMMARY 

expression  before  an  audience.  The 
chapter  shows  that  deliberate  effort  to 
train  students  to  think  and  to  speak  be- 
fore the  class  in  "  one-minute  talks,"  as 
described,  can  bring  results  that  are  sur- 
prising. It  proves  that  the  daily  holding 
up  of  an  ideal  of  the  fine  speaker  will  lead 
students  to  improve  in  personal  com- 
posure,  delivery,  style,  and  quality  of 
ideas. 

Practical  training  in  oral  composition 
would  give  the  boy  or  the  girl  ability  to 
use  every-day  English  in  a  pleasing  and 
effective  way.  The  high  school  should 
insure  to  its  graduate  the  use  of  correct, 
clear  speech,  straight  to  the  point.  It 
will  not  be  able  to  do  this  until  more 
well-planned  attention  is  given  to  oral 
composition,  until  the  pupils'  speech  re- 
ceives as  much  regard  as  the  pupils'  writ- 
ing. Ability  to  speak  and  to  write  one's 
own  language  correctly  is  the  keystone  of 
culture.  It  behooves  us  to  ask,  then,  Are 
the  schools  laying  the  proper  groundwork 
for  culture? 


INDEX 


Address,  pleasing.    See  Fine  speaker 

^Eneas,  125 

Allusions,  113,  114 

"Angleworm,"  the  diffident  boy,  13-16 

Argonautic  expedition,  125 

Argument.     See  Debate 

Argumentative,  the,  74 

Art,  69,  129 

Aspasia,  102 

Avoid,  mistakes  to.     See  Pitfalls 

Bacon,  Lord,  inductive  method,  92 

Baltimore,  Public  Athletic  League  of,  178 

Bibliography,  explained,  129.  130;  of  Roman  history,  135-144 

Biography,  69,  134 

Bluffing,  50 

Boileau,  6 

Bookishness,  72 

Boy  Scout  movement,  178 

Brief,  87 

Cadmus,  125 

Candidates,  license  to  teach  oral  English,  Preface,  be 

Choice  of  subject,  60 

Class.     See  Oral  composition,  Sample  lesson,  and  Talks 

Club:  English,  30-37;  History,  146-176;  how  managed,  31; 

in  working,  32-37;  results,  172-175;  Speakwell,  Preface. 

xii;  summary,  175,  176 
Colleges,  domination  of,  72 
Composition.     See  Oral  composition 
Conversation,  62,  72;  debate,  75 

207 


208  INDEX 

Correlation,  45,  46;  English,  geography,  spelling,  and  history, 
128, 156;  history  and  English,  82;  mythology  and  English, 
113-126;  mythology  and  history,  114-126 

Criticism:  Blackboard,  17,  18;  card  catalog  of.  14,  SO,  53; 
demand  eradication,  53;  discussion  of,  17;  gradual,  27; 
how  to  judge  debates,  79,  80,  82,  83;  praise  as  well  as 
blame,  17,  27,  51,  52;  sample,  extreme  case,  32-37;  self, 
26,29 

Cure  for  slovenly  speech,  2,  10,  11,  19,  20 

Debates,  brief,  87;  debate  in  relay,  96-99;  deciding  paragraph 
debates,  82,  83;  formal  debate,  90,  91;  good  debate, 
results  of,  74;  History  Club,  160,  161;  impromptu,  37; 
in  history,  80-82;  kinds  of  argument,  91-94;  literary  so- 
ciety, 84,  85;  main  issu  s,  87;  mock  trial,  94-96;  para- 
graph debates,  75-79;  peroration,  88;  procedure,  79,  80; 
refutation,  85-89;  subjects  for  debates,  97-99;  subjects 
for  paragraph  debates,  75-79;  summary,  100,  101;  sym- 
posium, 104;  terms,  85,  91-94 

Declaration  of  Independence,  179 

Deficiencies  in  speech,  2,  4 

Delivery,  26,  57,  58;  debate,  79.  84 

Description.     See  Subjects 

Diagrams:  Types  of  sentences,  59;  debates,  83 

Dictionary,  19 

Discipline.    See  Parliamentary  procedure 

Don'ts:  Do  not  choose  uninteresting  subjects,  48,  49;  do  not 
discourage  by  too  much  condemnation  or  spoil  by  too 
much  praise,  51,  52;  do  not  be  discouraged,  54,  55; 
do  not  drill  outlines  blindly  until  students  hate  them,  51; 
do  not  emphasize  one  phase  of  the  talk  at  the  expense  of 
the  others,  49,  50;  do  not  encourage  "hot  air,"  50;  do 
not  fail  to  arouse  interest,  46-48;  do  not  fail  to  hear  from 
all  of  the  class,  43-45;  do  not  fail  to  let  the  class  get  the 
ben  fit  as  well  as  the  teacher,  53,  54;  hi  debate,  90,  91; 
do  not  let  correction  go  in  one  ear  and  out  the  other,  52, 
53;  do  not  sacrifice  the  lesson  to  oral  composition,  45,  46 

Dramatic,  the,  123,  179,  180 


INDEX  209 


Ease.    See  Fine  speaker 
Educated  man,  69,  70 
Education,  Preface,  x 
Efficiency,  Preface,  ix,  40 
English.     See  Oral  composition 
English  Journal,  Preface,  ix 
Exposition.    See  Subject 

Faults  of  classes,  5;  debate,  83;  history,  128,  146-148,  173 
Fine  speaker,  the,  8,  9,  23-25;  in  debate,  79, 80;  in  meetings, 

164 
Flag,  200,  201 

Gavel,  32,  161,  162 

George  Junior  Republic,  178 

Gesture,  13,  23,  57,  84,  156 

Government:  A  government  in  seven  days,  180-201;  organi- 
zation in  class,  177-180;  results  of  work  in  government, 
201-206 

Grammar,  24,  156,  159 

Gulick,  Dr.  Luther  H.,  on  gang  spirit,  178 

Hercules,  labors  of,  125 

High  schools,  Preface,  x 

History,  69:  Bibliography  of  Roman  history,  135-144;  club, 
146-176;  debates,  80-82;  filing  away  work,  129;  historical 
spirit,  132-134;  maps,  129;  objects,  132-134;  oral  com- 
position, 127-135;  organizing  a  government  in  class,  177- 
206;  reference  reading,  127-132;  results  of  work  in  gov- 
ernment. 201-206;  sample  lessons  of  talks,  163-172;  study 
of  documents  by  dramatic  rendering,  179,  180;  summary 
of  work  in  history,  144,  145 

Human  interest,  67,  130 

Ideas,  24-26,  49,  60,  62-67;  debate,  79 
Imagination,  65 

Indians,  restricted  as  subject,  68 
Interest,  9 


210  INDEX 

Journal,  6G 

Julius  Ccesar,  Mark  Antony's  address,  89 

Laboratory  method,  Preface,  xii,  17,  29,  30,  92 

Lack  of  response,  36 

Landor,  Walter  Savage,  102 

Lesson.     See  Sample  lesson 

Letters,  debate  in,  75 

Library,  127 

Lincoln,  Gettysburg  speech,  89 

Lindsay,  Judge  Ben,  174,  175 

Literary  Society:  Debate  in  relay,  96-99;  deciding  debates, 
79,  80;  formal  debate,  90,  91;  mock  trial,  94-96;  para- 
graph debates,  84,  85;  parliamentary  procedure,  54; 
symposium,  104;  talk  memorized,  57,  58 

Literature,  69 

McCrea,  James,  on  training  in  government,  177 
Magazines,  63 
Main  issues.     See  Debates 
Man,  the  educated,  69,  70 
Marking.     See  Criticism 

Methods.  See  Parliamentary  procedure.  Summaries,  Pref- 
ace, xi 

Milton,  allusion  of,  113 
Minutes,  151-162 
Mock  trial.    See  Debates 
Mottoes,  18 
Mythological  symposium,  114,  115 

Narration.    See  Subject 

National  Council  of  Teachers  of  English,  Preface,  vii 

National  Educational  Association,  202 

Nature,  69 

Newark,  Central  High  School  of,  Preface,  viii,  x 

Note-taking,  39,  54;  as  a  thought-darifier,  56;  college  methods, 
61;  for  a  personal  experience,  70;  for  talks,  58;  short- 
hand, 194 

Number.    See  Talks.    Preface,  T 


INDEX  211 

Object  of  book,  5 

Observation,  63 

Old  Testament,  reading'in  history,  129 

Olympian  Council,  124 

Opinion:  Debates,  82,  83,  91;  forcing  an,  38,  39,  65,  66; 
forming  an,  203;  student  opinion  of  club,  149-154; 
symposium,  104,  109,  110 

Oral  composition:  Convictions  in  regard  to,  Preface,  xi;  need 
of,  1-5;  recognition  of  need  by  New  York  State  Asso- 
ciation of  English  Teachers  and  High  School  Teachers' 
Association  of  New  York,  3;  results  in  general,  205,  206; 
results  of  oral  composition  hi  history,  172-175,  191,  192; 
social,  business,  and  cultural  value,  47,  48 

Orator.     See  Fine  speaker 

Organization.     See  Parliamentary  procedure 

Outlines,  19,  50,  51,  58;  brief,  87;  debates,  83,  84;  history, 
128;  personal  experience,  70;  blackboard  record  of  sym- 
posium, 104;  refutation,  85 

Parliamentary  procedure,  30;  debates,  79,  80;  debates  in 
relay,  96;  discipline,  161,  162;  formal  debate,  90,  91; 
gavel,  32,  161;  government  in  seven  days,  182-201; 
History  Club,  148;  history  reports,  133;  in  working,  32- 
37;  minutes  in  history,  ,154-162;  mock  trial,  94-96; 
organizing  a  government,  180-182;  student  comments, 
149-154;  symposium,  102.  103,  105,  106;  114-116; 
Preface,  xi 

Pericles,  102 

Peroration.     See  Debates 

Perseus,  adventures  of,  125 

Philadelphia,  Department  of  Public  Works,  178 

Pitfalls,  43 

Poise.     See  Fine  speaker 

Popular  Educator,  Preface,  x 

Position,  26,  33 

Private  school,  Preface,  x 

Procedure,  See  Parliamentary  procedure 

Pronunciation,  19,  20,  33,  128,  156 


212  INDEX 

Psychology.    See  Summary 
Public  speaking.     See  Fine  speaker 

Qualities  of  teachers:  Balance,  45,  49;  enthusiasm,  power  to 
interest,  46,  47;  fertility  of  thought,  55;  generalship,  43; 
impartiality,  44;  ingenuity,  44,  45;  in  symposium,  103; 
sensitiveness,  51;  sympathy,  31,  44;  systematic  per- 
severance, 55;  tact,  55;  watchfulness,  44,  45 

Qualities,  rhetorical.     See  Rhetorical  qualities 

Reading,  62;  bibliography  of  Roman  history  reading,  135- 
144;  minutes,  record,  162,  163;  reference,  127;  results  of 
systematic  reading  in  history,  134,  135;  summary  of 
reference  reading  in  history,  144,  145 

Refutation,  85,  88 

Religion,  69 

Reports,  39,  40,  61;  history,  131,  132;  History  Club.  155; 
reading  in  history,  131,  132;  synonyms,  71 

Restriction  of  subject,  67-69 

Rhetorical  qualities:  Brevity,  19;  clearness,  19;  coherence, 
19,  87,  88;  emphasis,  19,  88;  paragraph  debates,  75; 
unity,  19,  75,  87 

Sample  lesson:  Club  in  working,  32-37;  first  talks,  13-16; 
harmonious  development,  23-26;  helping  the  students 
to  think,  62-66;  introductory  to  talks,  5-11;  kinds  of 
argument,  91-94;  minutes  of  the  History  Club,  157-162; 
Olympian  Council  meeting,  in  session,  116-124;  organ- 
izing a  government  in  seven  days,  180-201;  preparing 
debate,  86-89;  restricting  the  subject,  68,  69;  symposium 
on  a  national  flower,  105-110;  visit  to  the  History  Club, 
163-172 

Science,  69 

School,  a  preparation  for  life,  201-205 

School  paper,  71 

Schools,  restricted  as  a  subject,  69 

Self-government.     See  Club 

Slang,  18,  19,  47,  48 

Slovenly  English,  Preface,  ix;  cure  for,  2,  10,  11,  19,  20 


INDEX  213 

Speaker.    See  Fine  speaker 

Spelling,  128,  129 

Spencer,  Herbert,  on  self-teaching,  ii 

Spontaneity,  14 

Sport,  true,  74 

Style,  9. 58;  in  debates,  79,  89 

Subjects:  Anecdotes,  70;  biography,  39,  40,  61;  choice  of, 
57,  60,  72,  73;  debates  in  history,  80-82;  debates,  75-79, 
81,  82,97-99;  Declaration  of  Independence,  179;  descrip- 
tion, 20,  70;  exposition,  20;  the  familiar,  72;  good  sub- 
ject for  debate,  86,  96;  history  impromptu,  160;  hobbies, 
48;  interesting,  48;  jokes,  70;  narration,  20,  70;  para- 
graph development,  70;  paragraph  debates,  75-79;  para- 
phrases, 71;  personal  experiences,  20,  70;  point  of 
view,  48;  processes,  20;  qualifications  of  good  subject, 
66-68;  reasons,  20;  reports,  20,  39,  40,  70,  71;  restriction 
of  subject,  67-69;  school  paper,  71;  subject-matter,  69-72 j 
summaries,  20;  symposium,  110,  111,  124-126;  trans- 
lation, 20;  U.  S.  Constitution,  179;  vital  interest,  50. 57; 
vocational,  71 

Suggestion,  28 

Summaries  of  chapters,  20-22,  40-42,  55,  56,  72,  73,  100,  101, 
111,  112,  126,  144,  145,  175,  176,  205,  206 

Summarizing,  in  debates,  88 

Supervision.     See  Parliamentary  procedure,  Criticism 

Syllogism.     See  Debate,  terms 

Symposium,  102-112;  in  Greece,  102;  mythological,  113-126; 
summary,  111,  112;  value  and  use  of,  102-112 

Talks:    How  given,  11-13;  how  to  judge  debates,  79,  80; 

inter-class  talks,  40;  introductory  talk  to  class,  5-11; 

kinds  of  argument,  91-94;  length  of  talks,  61;  number,  44; 

preparing  a  debate,  86-89;  voluntary,  30;  ways  of  using, 

57-62 

Teacher.     See  Qualities 
Teaching:     Convictions    about   teaching   oral    composition. 

Preface,  ix;  self-teaching,  45,  46,  147,  148,  159,  172-175, 

182-201 


214  INDEX 

Team'play,  53,  54 

Tests,  37-40;  symposium,  110;  History  Club,  156 

Themes.    See  Subjects 

Theseus,  125 

Time.     See  Talks 

Timidity,  11,  12,  25,  28,  44 

Toasts.     See  Symposium 

Topic.     See  Subject 

Trojan  War,  124 

Ulysses,  124 

Vocabulary,  18,  19,  59 
Vocational,  71 

Written  themes,  46 


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